Development  of  Manual  Training 
in  the  United  States 


BY 

H.  Ross  Smith 


A  Thesis  Submitted  to  the  Faculty  of  the  Graduate  School  of  the 

University  of  Pennsylvania  in  Partial  Fulfillment 

of  the  Requirements  for  the  Degree  of 

Doctor  of  Philosophy 


Intelligencer  Print 

Lancaster,  Pa. 

1914 


EducatJoa 
Library 

Lb 


CONTENTS 


Preface 5 

Chapter  I — Historical  Sketch 7 

Chapter  II — Conditions  Which  Led  to  the  Introduc- 
tion OF  Manual  Training;  Obstacles  Which  Re- 

tarded  Its  Growth 26 

t-    Chapter  III — Effect  of  the  Introduction  of  Manual 

CM 

5        Training  upon  American  Education 46 

Chapter  IV — Present  Day  Tendencies 73 

Conclusion 85 

w   Bibliography 88 

c 
o 

X 


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PREFACE 


It  is  the  purpose  of  this  thesis  to  trace  out  the  development 
of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States;  to  state  the  causes 
which  were  responsible  for  its  introduction ;  to  suggest  the  bene- 
fits derived ;  and  to  give  some  idea  of  the  present  trend  of  educa- 
tional thought  in  regard  to  the  subject.  Much  has  been  written 
in  recent  years  about  Vocational  Education,  Industrial  Train- 
ing, Technical  Training,  Mechanic  Arts,  and  Trade  Schools. 
Discussion  of  these  forms  of  training  does  not  lie  within  the 
scope  of  this  paper,  except  when  they  are  so  interrelated  with 
Manual  Training  that  it  is  practically  impossible  to  divorce 
them. 

Domestic  Science  is  not  treated  under  a  separate  heading, 
but  is  discussed  in  its  relation  to  Manual  Training.  Much  that 
is  said  concerning  Manual  Training  is  true,  also,  of  Domestic 
Science.  What  Manual  Training  is  to  the  boys.  Domestic 
Science  is  to  the  girls. 

Much  confusion  has  arisen  among  the  uninitiated  because 
of  the  different  terms  used,  hence,  it  is  of  prime  importance 
that  the  distinction  between  Manual  Training  and  the  other 
forms  of  training  be  made  perfectly  clear. 

A  Manual  Training  course,  as  outlined  at  the  present  time, 
consists  of  a  graded  course  in  wood,  iron,  and  machinists'  work; 
systematic  and  continued  instruction  in  free-hand  and  mechan- 
ical drawing,  combined  with  academic  studies  as  co-ordinated 
departments.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  Manual  Training  to 
teach  trades,  but  rather  to  make  the  boy  familiar  with  the  use 
of  tools.  It  is  disciplinary  in  that  it  endeavors  to  train  the 
hand  for  the  purpose  of  securing  at  the  same  time  the  training 
of  the  mind,  through  the  senses  of  touch  and  perception.  At 
the  same  time  the  eye  is  being  trained  to  accurate  observation. 
This  training  first  found  a  place  in  the  curriculum  of  the  high 


6        Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

schools,  but  soon  began  to  push  its  way  down  into  the  elemen- 
tary grades.  It  is  with  these  phases  of  our  educational  work 
that  this  investigation  has  to  deal. 

In  the  definition  of  the  other  terms,  I  conform  largely  to  the 
definitions  suggested  by  Dr.  David  Snedden,  Commissioner  of 
Education  for  Massachusetts,  given  in  detail  in  Bulletin  No. 
12  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial 
Education. 

Vocational  Education  is  the  most  comprehensive  term  in 
use  at  the  present  time.  It  is  defined  as  that  phase  of  educa- 
tion whose  controlling  purpose  is  to  fit  for  a  calling  or  voca- 
tion. In  its  completeness  it  always  involves  at  least  two  large 
distinguishable  aspects — practice  in  the ,  productive  work  of  the 
calling  itself  and  study  of  or  about  the  sciences,  art,  mathe- 
matics, economy,  history,  or  technique  which  enter  into  or 
relate  to  it.  The  first  may  be  called  the  concrete  or  practical 
part  of  Vocational  Training,  the  second,  the  technical  or  theo- 
retical part. 

Industrial  Education  may  be  considered  as  that  phase  of 
education  whose  controlling  purpose  is  to  fit  for  a  trade,  craft, 
or  special  division  of  manufacturing  work.  When  defined  in 
this  way,  it  becomes  but  one  form  of  Vocational  Education. 

Technical  education  is  designed  to  be  part  of  vocational 
education.  Each  vocation  or  group  of  related  vocations  may 
have  its  own  body  of  technical  studies  or  technical  studies 
common  to  other  vocations.  Technical  training  may  be  con- 
sidered, then,  as  that  training  which  is  derived  from  those 
studies  which  pertain  to  some  particular  art,  science,  trade,  or 
the  like. 

Mechanic  Arts  education  is  a  vague  phrase  describing  ac- 
tivities carrying  from  Manual  Training  procedures  through 
technical  studies  to  fully  developed  trade  education. 

A  Trade  School  is  an  industrial  school  in  which  practical 
work,  at  least  as  exercises,  if  not  productive,  is  a  prominent 
feature.  Such  a  school  is  usually  designed  (except  in  the  case 
of  girls)  for  youths  of  sixteen  or  more  years,  corresponding  to 
the  customary  age  of  admission  to  apprenticeship. 


CHAPTER  I 

Historical  Sketch 

Certain  of  the  principles  underlying  manual  training,  de- 
pending largely  upon  native  instincts  and  ability,  have  always 
been  practiced  by  man  in  his  various  activities.  Under  prim- 
itive conditions,  children  learned  to  perform  their  duties  through 
imitation  and  by  the  aid  of  whatever  assistance  the  parents 
might  see  fit  to  give.  These  duties  required  manual  effort, 
without  the  aid  of  intellectual  studies.  As  exchange  markets 
came  into  existence,  the  divisions  of  labor  became  more  and 
more  definitely  defined.  As  the  divisions  of  labor  multiplied, 
the  Guild  and  apprenticeship  systems  were  developed  to  train 
the  beginners.  These  systems,  however,  have  gradually  died 
out,  and,  in  their  places,  modern  thought  has  demanded  that 
the  State  should  hold  itself  responsible  for  the  instruction  of 
the  youth,  no  matter  what  pursuit  in  life  he  may  elect.  It  is 
not  my  intent  to  trace  this  modern  thought  in  detail,  with  the 
exception  of  the  development  of  the  movement  in  its  relation 
to  the  public  school  system  of  this  country. 

It  will  be  sufficient  if  mention  is  made  of  but  a  few  of  those 
who  first  advocated  the  introduction  of  manual  work  in  the 
school  room.  As  early  as  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, Martin  Luther  emphasized  the  moral  advantages  to  be 
derived,  if  manual  work  were  required  in  addition  to  the  regular 
academic  studies.  Commenius,  1 592-1 671,  in  "The  Great 
Didactic,"  suggests  that  boys  would  better  find  out  their  special 
aptitudes  if  they  were  given  a  general  knowledge  of  the  me- 
chanic arts. 

The  Catholic  missionaries  were  emphasizing  the  manual 
aspect  of  education  in  America  as  early  as  1629.  The  earliest 
schools  within  the  present  limits  of  the  United  States  were 
established  by  the  Franciscans  in  Florida  and  New  Mexico. 


8         Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

The  instruction  given  in  the  schools  in  New  Mexico  was  of  a 
two-fold  character:  "Up  to  nine  years  of  age,  the  children  were 
taught  reading,  writing,  catechism,  singing,  and  playing  on 
musical  instruments.  Spanish  was  also  taught.  A  striking 
feature  of  this  system  of  education  was  its  practical  character. 
From  nine  years  of  age  on,  the  work  of  the  pupil  in  school  was 
almost  wholly  industrial.  The  common  arts  and  trades  of  the 
civilized  world  formed  the  curriculum^— tailoring,  shoemaking, 
carpentering,  carving,  blacksmithing,  bricklaying,  stonecutting. 
The  girls  were  taught  to  sew  and  to  spin."^ 

In  1647  Sir  Wm.  Pelty  suggested  a  plan  for  an  Industrial 
School.  He  states:  "Let  in  no  case  the  art  of  drawing  and 
designing  be  omitted,  to  what  course  of  life  soever  those  chil- 
dren are  to  be  applied;  since  the  use  thereof  for  expressing  the 
conceptions  of  the  mind  seems,  at  least  to  us,  to  be  little  inferior 
to  that  of  writing,  and  in  many  cases  performeth  what  by  words 
is  impossible."^  The  recommendations  of  Rousseau,  1712- 
1778,  in  his  Emile  are  so  well  known  that  it  is  not  necessary  to 
repeat  them  here.  Kinderman,  1 740-1 801,  was  one  of  the  first 
to  put  manual  work  into  actual  operation  in  the  school.  In  177 1 
he  introduced,  among  the  boys  and  girls  in  his  Bohemian  parish, 
practical  instruction,  which  dealt  particularly  with  their  local 
occupations.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  eighteenth  century 
and  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth,  Arnold  Wageman,  Dr.  I. 
G.  Krunitz,  Fichte,  and  others  made  important  contributions 
toward  the  development  of  the  sentiment  that  boys  and  girls 
would  be  greatly  benefited  by  receiving  instruction  in  practical 
subjects. 

Special  mention  should,  no  doubt,  be  made  of  Peletier,  Froe- 
bel,  Pestalozzi,  and  Cygnaeus.  "In  1793,  Robespierre  pro- 
posed to  the  National  Assembly  of  France  a  bill  for  a  new  educa- 
tional scheme,  prepared  by  Michael  de  Peletier.  The  plan 
aimed  to  instill  the  duty  of  the  habit  of  work,  not  as  thorough 
knowledge  of  any  special  trade,  but  as  the  development  of  that 


^J.  A.  Burns,  "The  Catholic  School  System  in  the  United  States,"  pp.  41 
and  42. 

*  Barnard's  "American  Journal  of  Education,"  Vol.  XI,  p.  202. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States         9 

energy  and  industrious  activity  which  characterizes  earnest, 
diligent  persons.  Peletier  says :  '  I  consider  this  part  of  educa- 
tion the  most  important,  and,  therefore,  my  plan  of  general  in- 
struction contains  manual  labor  as  its  vital  feature.  Of  all 
the  means  likely  to  stimulate  the  average  child,  none  will  pro- 
duce a  greater  desire  for  activity  than  physical  work.  I  would 
desire  that  various  kinds  of  handicraft  work  might  be  intro- 
duced.'''^- 

The  story  of  Pestalozzi's  life  is  a  life  of  unceasing  devotion 
and  self-sacrifice  to  a  cause  to  which  he  consecrated  himself. 
It  was  his  aim  to  help  the  poverty-stricken  children  particularly, 
and  by  the  aid  of  his  educational  scheme,  to  aid  and  uplift  them 
and  prepare  them  for  their  proper  places  in  society.  His  first  at- 
tempt was  at  Neuhof,  where,  during  the  first  year,  the  children 
"made  considerable  progress  with  their  manual  work,  as  well  as 
with  the  lessons  that  were  joined  with  it,  taking  great  pleasure  in 
both.  All  they  did  and  said,  moreover,  seemed  to  express  their 
appreciation  of  their  benefactor's  kind  care  of  them."* 

In  the  course  of  an  appeal  he  made  in  1776,  Pestalozzi  states: 
"I  promise  to  teach  them  all  to  read,  write,  and  cipher;  I  prom- 
ise to  give  all  the  boys,  so  far  as  my  position  and  knowledge  will 
allow  me,  practical  instruction  in  the  most  profitable  methods 
of  cultivating  small  plots  of  land,  to  teach  them  to  lay  down 
pasture  land,  to  understand  the  use  and  value  of  manures,  to 
know  the  different  sorts  of  grasses  and  the  importance  of  mix- 
ing them; — it  will  be  the  household  needs,  too,  that  will  give 
the  girls  an  opportunity  of  learning  gardening,  domestic  duties, 
and  needlework."* 

When  Pestalozzi  was  given  charge  of  the  poor  house  at  Stanz, 
his  plan  was  warmly  recommended  by  the  members  of  the 
Directory,  which  issued  a  decree  which  provided  among  other 
things  that  "the  time  of  the  pupils  will  be  divided  between 
field  work,  house  work,  and  study.  An  attempt  will  be  made  to 
develop  in  the  pupils  as  much  skill,  and  as  many  useful  powers 
as  the  funds  of  the  establishment  will  allow.  "• 


'  Row,  "The  Educational  Meaning  of  Manual  Arts  and  Industries,"  p.  29. 
*  De  Guimps,  "Pestalozzi— His  Life  and  Works,"  p.  55. 
» Ibid.,  p.  57. 
^lUd.,  p.  133. 


10        Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

Pestalozzi's  conception  that  manual  and  mental  effort  be 
combined  was  not  an  entirely  new  idea,  but  he  gave  it  a  more 
thorough  trying  out  than  had  ever  been  attempted  before. 
His  experiments  all  ended  in  failure  eventually,  but  his  prin- 
ciples have  been  followed  ever  since  in  modified  form.  Had  he 
been  a  better  executive,  his  plans  and  ideas  might  not  have 
miscarried  so  miserably. 

Whatever  of  importance  and  value  has  come  down  to  us  from 
Pestalozzi,  we  owe  more  to  his  intense  enthusiasm  and  untir- 
ing zeal,  which  made  him  persevere  against  all  odds,  rather  than 
to  any  actual  benefits  derived  from  his  teachings.  Yet  he 
pointed  out  that  his  ideas  were  practical  under  capable  man- 
agement. 

At  the  present  time  we  probably  associate  Froebel's  name 
more  closely  with  the  introduction  of  the  kindergarten  than 
with  any  other  single  pedagogical  principle.  Yet  many  of  his 
ideas  apply  equally  well  to  boys  and  girls  who  are  above  the 
kindergarten  grade.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  exploitation 
of  his  principles  had  much  to  do  with  crystallizing  the  manual 
training  movement.  Froebel  was  probably  greatly  aided  by 
his  association  with  Pestalozzi  at  Yverdum,  in  working  out  his 
educational  scheme. 

Froebel  believed  that  "every  child,  boy,  and  youth,  what- 
ever his  condition  or  position  in  life,  should  devote  daily  at  least 
one  or  two  hours  to  some  serious  activity  in  the  production  of 
some  definite  external  piece  of  work.  Lessons  through  and  by 
work,  through  and  from  life,  are  by  far  the  most  impressive 
and  intelligible,  and  most  continuously  and  intensively  pro- 
gressive both  in  themselves  and  in  their  effect  on  the  learner."' 
He  goes  on  to  say  that  "The  domestic  and  scholastic  education 
of  our  time  leads  children  to  indolence  and  laziness;  a  vast 
amount  of  human  power  thereby  remains  undeveloped  and  is 
lost.  It  would  be  a  most  wholesome  arrangement  in  schools 
to  establish  actual  working  hours  similar  to  the  existing  study 
hours;  and  it  will  surely  come  to  this.^ 

"Froebel,  "The   Education   of   Man."    Tr.  by  W.  N.  Hailman,  p.  34. 
*/Wd.,  p.  35. 


Development  oj  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States        1 1 

"Froebel  proposed  to  devote  the  forenoon  to  the  instruction 
in  the  current  subjects  of  school  study,  and  the  afternoon  to 
work  in  the  field,  garden,  the  forest,  and  in  and  around  the 
house."'  His  occupations  comprised  many  of  those  now  carried 
on  in  the  manual  training  room  and  in  the  kindergarten. 

Finland  secured  a  prominent  place  in  the  manual  training 
movement  when,  in  1866,  she  required  that  a  simple  course  in 
manual  training  be  made  a  part  of  the  curricula  of  all  the  ele- 
mentary schools.  The  course  was  outlined  by  Cygnaeus  eight 
years  before  its  final  adoption.  Following  closely  upon  the 
action  of  Finland,  Victor  Della-Vos,  Director  of  the  Imperial 
Technical  School  of  Moscow,  introduced  a  method  of  tool- 
instruction,  the  exposition  of  which,  by  President  J.  D.  Runkle, 
of  the  Mass.  Institute  of  Technology,  was  largely  responsible 
for  the  interest  manifested  by  many  of  our  own  educators  in 
the  movement. 

Such,  in  brief,  is  an  outline  of  the  development  of  the  feeling 
which  was  aroused  among  educators  in  many  countries,  that 
the  senses,  the  mind,  and  the  hand  should  be  trained  simul- 
taneously. Only  those  educational  thinkers  have  been  men- 
tioned who  were  the  most  prominent  advocates  of  the  new 
scheme  of  education  up  to  the  time  when  our  own  country 
began  to  take  an  active  interest  in  the  movement. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  same  question  was  being  agitated  in 
the  United  States,  but  not  as  extensively  as  in  some  of  the  foreign 
countries.  One  of  the  first,  and  perhaps  the  first,  of  our  coun- 
trymen to  give  his  views  on  this  phase  of  education,  was  Benja- 
min Rush.  In  a  letter  to  George  Clymer,  Esq.,  under  the  date 
August  20th,  1790,  he  expressed  his  thoughts  upon  the  amuse- 
ments and  punishments  which  are  proper  for  schools.  In  the 
course  of  the  letter  he  writes  as  follows:  "I  would  propose 
that  the  amusements  of  our  youth,  at  school,  should  consist 
of  such  exercises  as  will  be  most  subservient  to  their  future  em- 
ployments in  life.  These  are:  (i)  agriculture;  (2)  mechanical 
occupations;  and  (3)  the  business  of  the  learned  professions."*" 


Froebel,  "The  Education  of  Man,"  Tr.  by  W.  N.  Hailman,  p.  38. 
"  "Essays  by  Benjamin  Rush,  M.  D.,"  published  by  Thomas  and  Samuel 
E.  Bradford,  Phila.,  1798,  p.  58. 


12       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

Here  we  have  expressed  the  demand  for  vocational  education 
which  has  become  so  prevalent  in  recent  years.  Dr.  David 
Snedden  has  recently  stated  that  "the  education  whose  con- 
trolling motive  in  the  choice  of  means  and  methods  is  to  pre- 
pare for  productive  efficiency  is  vocational"  .  .  .  "and 
from  the  standpoint  of  social  necessity,  vocational  education 
given  by  some  agency  is  indispensable.""  He  goes  on  to  show 
that  this  agency  should  be  the  school.  The  wording  of  the  two 
statements,  separated  by  more  than  a  hundred  years,  is  dif- 
ferent, but  the  meaning  is  the  same;  the  school  should  furnish 
such  instruction  as  will  best  prepare  the  youth  for  his  future 
occupation.  Under  types  of  vocational  education  Dr.  Snedden 
suggests:  (a)  The  professional;  (b)  the  commercial;  (c)  the 
agricultural;  (d)  the  industrial,  or  those  connected  with  manu- 
facturing and  the  mechanic  arts;  (e)  the  household. ^'^  Here 
again,  it  is  seen  that  the  divisions  of  vocational  education,  as 
suggested  by  the  two  men,  are  practically  the  same.  In  the 
time  of  Benjamin  Rush,  the  commercial  pursuits  had  not  at- 
tained sufficient  importance  to  warrant  a  separate  heading  and 
the  household  arts  were  still  taken  care  of  by  the  home. 

In  his  admirable  letter  Dr.  Rush  continues:  "There  is  a 
variety  in  the  employments  of  agriculture  which  may  readily  be 
suited  to  the  genius,  taste,  and  strength  of  young  people.  Aa 
experiment  has  been  made  of  the  efficiency  of  these  employ- 
ments, as  amusements,  in  the  Methodist  College  at  Abington, 
in  Maryland,  and,  I  have  been  informed,  with  the  happiest 
effects.  A  large  lot  is  divided  between  the  scholars,  and  prem- 
iums are  adjudged  to  those  of  them  who  produce  the  most 
vegetables  from  their  grounds,  or  who  keep  them  in  the  best 
order. 

"As  the  employments  of  agriculture  cannot  afford  amuse-* 
ment  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  or  in  cities,  I  would  propose 
that  children  should  be  allured  to  seek  amusements  in  such 
of  the  mechanical  arts  as  are  suited  to  their  strength  and  capac- 


"  David  Snedden,  "The  Problem  of  Vocational  Education,"  Houghton^ 
Mifflin  Co.,  p.  13. 
"  Ihid.,  p.  23. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States        13 

ities.  Where  is  the  boy  who  does  not  delight  in  the  use  of  a 
hammer — a  chisel — or  a  saw?  And  who  has  not  enjoyed  a 
high  degree  of  pleasure  in  his  youth,  in  constructing  a  miniature 
house?  How  amusing  are  the  machines  which  are  employed  in 
the  manufacturing  of  clothing  of  all  kinds!  And  how  full  of 
various  entertainment  are  the  mixtures  which  take  place  in  the 
chemical  arts!  Each  of  these  might  be  contrived  upon  such  a 
scale,  as  not  only  to  amuse  young  people,  but  to  afford  a  profit 
to  their  parents  or  masters.  The  Moravians,  at  Bethlehem  in 
our  state  (Pennsylvania),  have  proved  that  this  proposition  is 
not  a  chimerical  one.  All  the  amusements  of  their  children  are 
derived  from  their  performing  the  subordinate  parts  of  several 
of  the  mechanical  arts. 

"To  train  the  youth  who  are  intended  for  the  learned  pro- 
fessions or  for  merchandise,  to  the  duties  of  their  future  employ- 
ment, by  means  of  useful  amusements,  which  are  related  to 
those  employments,  will  be  impracticable;  but  their  amuse- 
ments may  be  derived  from  cultivating  a  spot  of  ground;  for 
where  is  the  lawyer,  the  physician,  the  divine,  or  the  merchant, 
who  has  not  indulged  or  felt  a  passion,  in  some  part  of  his  life, 
for  rural  improvements?  Indeed  I  conceive  the  seeds  of  knowl- 
edge in  agriculture  will  be  most  productive  when  they  are 
planted  in  the  minds  of  this  class  of  scholars."" 

Further  on  he  states:  "To  obviate  these  evils  (obliging 
children  to  sit  too  long  in  one  place,  or  crowding  too  many  of 
them  together  in  one  room),  children  should  be  permitted,  after 
they  have  said  their  lessons,  to  amuse  themselves  in  the  open 
air,  in  some  of  the  useful  and  agreeable  exercises  which  have 
been  mentioned.  Their  minds  will  be  strengthened,  as  well  as 
their  bodies  relieved  by  them.  To  oblige  a  sprightly  boy  to 
sit  seven  hours  in  a  day,  with  his  little  arms  pinioned  to  his 
sides,  and  his  neck  unnaturally  bent  towards  his  book;  and  for 
no  crime!  What  cruelty  and  folly  are  manifested  by  such  an 
absurd  mode  of  instructing  or  governing  young  people."" 


"  "Essays  by  Benjamin  Rush,  M.  D.,"  published  by  Thomas  and  Samuel 
E.  Bradford,  Phila.,  1798,  pp.  58,  59,  60. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  63. 


14       Development  oj  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  this  letter  was  written  before  Robes- 
pierre presented  his  bill  to  the  National  Assembly  of  France, 
before  Pestalozzi  started  his  school  at  Stanz,  and  when  Froebel 
was  but  eight  years  old.  It  is  to  be  further  observed  that  two 
institutions  in  this  country  are  mentioned  as  having  already 
introduced  some  of  the  principles  suggested,  and  it  is  fair  to 
assume  that  there  were  others  in  existence.  As  has  been  pointed 
out,  vocational  training  was  suggested  by  Rush.  He  also  recom- 
mended some  of  the  principles  that  have  recently  been  taken 
up  and  exploited  by  the  advocates  of  manual  training.  He 
suggests  that  those  who  intend  to  enter  the  learned  profes- 
sions would  derive  much  benefit  from  practicing  agriculture, 
and  that,  by  taking  part  in  cultivating  a  piece  of  ground  and 
in  mechanical  work,  after  their  lessons  have  been  recited,  the> 
children  would  both  strengthen  their  minds  and  relieve  their 
bodies.  Quite  recently  I  asked  a  teacher  of  manual  training 
what,  in  his  opinion,  was  the  greatest  benefit  derived  from  a 
manual  training  course.  His  reply  was  almost  identical  with 
the  statement  above. 

During  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth  century,  manual 
labor  academies  were  organized  in  various  parts  of  the  United 
States.  One  illustration  will  be  sufficient  to  give  an  idea  of  the 
method  of  procedure.  The  Oneida  Institute,  N.  Y.,  was  es- 
tablished in  1827.  Business  men  of  the  town  gave  employ- 
ment to  students  and  paid  the  institution  for  their  services. 
The  students  made  joiner's  tools,  some  beating  out  mouths, 
others  making  handles,  and  others  finishing  tools.  Others, 
were  employed  in  the  wagon  and  sleigh  shop,  blacksmith  shop, 
cabinet  shop,  in  the  making  of  bedstead  material,  in  the  making 
of  brooms,  etc.  In  1833,  the  trustees  had  measures  in  progress, 
to  furnish  a  thorough  and  full  course  of  classical  instruction. 

After  the  institute  had  been  in  operation  for  six  years,  the 
conclusions  of  the  superintendent  were:  that  young  men  are 
willing  to  labor;  that  both  mind  and  body  are  benefited;  pro- 
gress in  study  is  not  retarded  in  general,  and  in  many  cases, 
accelerated,  while  the  expenses  of  an  education  are  diminished 
very  considerably. 

Such  a  program  of  work  and  study  conforms  more  closely 
to  the  Industrial  and  half-time  schools  of  the  present  day  than. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States        15 

to  the  Manual  Training  school.  It  is  important  that  this  type 
of  school  be  noted,  however,  in  order  that  a  proper  perspective 
be  obtained  of  the  progress  of  the  manual  training  movement  in 
this  country. 

In  1832,  the  Committee  on  Education  of  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives of  Pennsylvania  was  directed  to  prepare  a  report  on 
Manual  Labor  Academies.  In  the  course  of  its  report,  the 
committee  stated  that  "From  a  careful  examination  of  the 
nature  of  these  institutions  (Manual  Labor  Academies),  and 
the  principles  upon  which  they  are  based,  and  from  information 
derived  from  gentlemen  well  versed  in  education,  as  well  as 
from  personal  observation,  the  committee  is  fully  convinced 
that  whatever  prejudices  may  heretofore  have  existed  against 
the  manual  labor  system  of  instruction,  it  is  one  peculiarly 
adapted  to  supply,  in  an  economical  and  efficient  manner,  our 
present  wants.  It  comprises  manual  with  intellectual  labor 
and  recognizes  as  well,  the  development  of  the  powers  of  the 
body,  as  increasing  the  strength  and  cultivating  the  various 
faculties  of  the  mind."  " 

The  following  propositions  were  submitted  by  the  committee: 

First. — "That  the  expense  of  education,  when  connected 
with  manual  labor,  judiciously  directed,  may  be  reduced  one- 
half." 

Second. — "That  the  exercise  of  about  three  hours  manual 
labor,  daily,  contributes  to  the  health  and  cheerfulness  of  the 
pupil,  by  strengthening  and  improving  his  physical  powers,  and 
by  engaging  his  mind  in  useful  pursuits." 

Third. — "That  so  far  from  manual  labor  being  an  impedi- 
ment in  the  progress  of  the  pupil  in  intellectual  studies,  it  has 
been  found  that  in  proportion  as  one  pupil  has  excelled  another 
in  the  amount  of  labor  performed,  the  same  pupil  has  excelled 
the  other,  in  equal  ratio,  in  his  intellectual  studies." 

Fourth. — "That  manual  labor  institutions  tend  to  break  down 
the  distinctions  between  rich  and  poor  which  exist  in  society, 
inasmuch  as  they  give  an  almost  equal  opportunity  of  educa- 


**  Mr.  Matthias,  "Pamphlets  on  Education"  in  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  Manual  Labor  Academies,  Feb.  21,  1833,  Vol.  2,  p.  4. 


16       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

tion  to  the  poor  by  labor,  as  is  afforded  to  the  rich  by  the  pos- 
session of  wealth";  and 

Fifth. — "That  pupils  trained  in  this  way  are  much  better 
fitted  for  active  life,  and  better  qualified  to  act  as  useful  citi- 
zens, than  when  educated  in  any  other  mode — that  they  are 
better  as  regards  physical  energy,  and  better  intellectually  and 
morally."" 

When  Illinois  College  was  being  established  in  1832,  the  trus- 
tees, impelled  by  public  opinion,  introduced  "a  system  of 
manual  labor,  as  conducive  to  the  health  and  economy  of  the 
students."  The  president  of  the  college  attested  to  this  enter- 
prise as  follows:  "The  scheme  of  manual  labor  schools  was 
one  of  the  then  new-born  favorites  of  the  more  ardent  class  of 
progressives,  but  had  been  very  generally  received  by  the 
public  and  must  needs  be  subjected  to  the  test  of  experience. 
This  college  came  into  being,  just  at  the  unlucky  moment 
when  it  must  needs  bear  a  part  in  the  experiment."  "The 
scheme,  however,  after  considerable  pecuniary  loss,  was  aban- 
doned, as  fallacious  and  impracticable."" 

In  1834,  the  Industrial  Schools  of  the  American  Female  Guard- 
ian Society  were  started  in  New  York  City  and,  in  1850,  the  Five 
Points  House  of  Industry  was  organized.  Following  this  date, 
industrial  schools  began  to  increase  in  number  much  more 
rapidly.  It  is  to  be  noted,  however,  that  these  early  industrial 
schools  were  maintained  by  voluntary  contributions,  bequests, 
and  tuitions.  More  recently  some  of  them  have  received  as- 
sistance from  the  city,  state,  or  national  government. 

A  number  of  the  higher  institutions  of  learning  in  the  United 
States  introduced  courses  in  agriculture  and  engineering  about 
the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Other  colleges  and  uni- 
versities were  enabled  to  add  these  courses,  and  the  work  of 
the  institutions  already  possessing  them  was  greatly  augmented 
by  the  act  of  Congress  of  July  2,  1862,  by  which  the  grant  of 


"Mr.  Matthias,  "Pamphlets  on  Education"  in  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  Manual  Labor  Academies,  Feb.  21,  1833,  Vol.  2,  p.  5. 

"  Barnard's  American  Journal  of  Education,   1856,  Vol.   I,  p.  228. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States        17 

land  for  the  endowment  of  these  institutions  was  made.^*  This 
act  says: 

"The  leading  object  shall  be,  without  excluding  other  scien- 
tific and  classical  studies,  and  including  military  tactics,  to 
teach  such  branches  of  learning  as  are  related  to  agriculture 
and  the  mechanic  arts  in  such  manner  as  the  legislatures  of  the 
States  may  respectively  prescribe,  in  order  to  promote  the 
liberal  and  practical  education  of  the  industrial  classes  in  the 
several  pursuits  and  professions  of  life." 

Massachusetts  led  the  way  in  endeavoring  to  incorporate 
industrial  training  in  the  public  school  system  when  she  passed 
a  statute  in  1872,  authorizing  the  establishment  and  main- 
tenance by  any  town  and  city  of  any  sort  of  an  industrial  school 
as  a  part  of  its  public  school  system." 

That  this  law  was  in  advance  of  public  sentiment  is  clearly 
shown  by  the  fact  that  no  town  or  city  availed  itself  of  its  op- 
portunity until  Springfield,  in  1898,  opened  its  evening  trade 
school. 

Tool-instruction  was  introduced  in  Washington  University, 
St.  Louis,  in  1875,  but  systematic  mechanical  work  had  already 
been  in  operation  there  for  a  few  years.  This,  then,  might  be 
considered  as  the  beginning  of  the  rnanual  training  in  this 
country,  for  it  subsequently  led  up  to  the  establishment  of  the 
St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School.  In  1876,  at  the  Centennial 
Exposition  in  Philadelphia,  Victor  Della-Vos  had  an  exhibit 
of  the  results  of  his  instruction  from  his  school  in  Moscow.  This 
display  aroused  a  great  interest  and  caused  considerable  com- 
ment among  the  educators  of  this  country.  Previous  to  this 
time,  however,  President  Runkle,  of  the  Massachusetts  Insti- 
tute of  Technology,  had  become  familiar  with  the  system  of 
Della-Vos,  and  in  his  report  of  1876  gave  a  clear  explanation 
of  the  methods  pursued.  Furthermore,  he  recommended  that 
instruction  shops  be  introduced  in  the  Institute  of  Technology. 


"  A  description  of  the  work  done  by  these  institutions  can  be  found  in  In- 
dustrial Eklucation  in  the  United  States,  a  special  Report  prepared  by  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education  in  1883. 

"This  statute  was  approved  March  9,  1872,  and  is  given  in  the  Report  of 
the  Mass.  Commission  on  Industrial  and  Technical  Education,  1906,  p.  12. 


18       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

His  suggestion  was  agreed  to,  and,  in  1877,  the  shops  were 
practically  completed.  President  Runkle  deserves  special  men- 
tion because  of  the  fact  that  he  pointed  out  definitely  that  tool- 
instruction  could  be  made  of  great  value  in  any  scheme  of  gen- 
eral education. 

Following  closely  upon  the  action  of  the  Massachusetts 
Institute  of  Technology,  the  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School 
was  established  June  6,  1879.  This  school  was  made  possible 
through  the  generosity  of  several  gentlemen  in  St.  Louis.  Dr. 
CM.  Woodward,  who  was  Dean  of  the  Polytechnic  School  of 
Washington  University,  was  made  Director  of  the  Manual 
Training  School.  He  had  been  a  strong  advocate  of  manual 
education,  and  in  an  address  before  the  St.  Louis  Social  Science 
Association  in  1878  said:  "The  manual  education  which  begins 
in  the  kindergarten  should  never  cease.  Just  how  we  shall 
supply  the  missing  links  in  the  chain  which  joins  the  kinder- 
garten with  the  fully  equipped  shops  of  the  polytechnic  school, 
we  cannot  with  certainty  suggest."  To  Dr.  Woodward,  credit 
is  given  for  coining  the  name  "Manual  Training  School." 

At  the  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School  for  the  first  time  in 
America  the  age  of  admission  to  school-shops  was  reduced  to 
fourteen  years  as  a  minimum,  and  a  very  general  three-years' 
course  of  study  was  organized.  The  ordinance  by  which  the 
school  was  established  specified  its  objects  in  very  general  terms: 

"Its  objects  shall  be  instruction  in  mathematics,  drawing, 
and  the  English  branches  of  a  high-school  course,  and  instruc- 
tion and  practice  in  the  use  of  tools.  The  tool-instruction,  as 
at  present  contemplated,  shall  include  carpentry,  wood-turning, 
pattern-making,  iron  chipping  and  filing,  forge-work,  brazing 
and  soldering,  the  use  of  machine-shop  tools,  and  such  other 
instruction  of  a  similar  character  as  it  may  be  deemed  advis- 
able to  add  to  the  foregoing  from  time  to  time." 

"The  students  will  divide  their  working  hours,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  equally  between  mental  and  manual  exercises." 

"They  shall  be  admitted,  on  examination,  at  not  less  than 
fourteen  years  of  age,  and  the  course  shall  continue  three  years."** 

"C.  M.  Woodward,  "The  Manual  Training  School."  Heath,  1887,  p.  5. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States        1 9 

The  first  manual  training  school  to  be  established  as  a  part 
of  a  city  school  system  was  the  Baltimore  Manual  Training 
School.  "On  the  24th  of  April,  1883,  in  response  to  a  motion, 
a  committee  was  appointed  by  the  school  commissioners  to 
report  upon  the  best  means  of  fitting  boys  and  girls  'as  quickly 
as  possible  for  self-support.'  On  June  19,  1883,  the  committee 
reported  that  it  would  be  expedient  to  establish  a  high  school 
for  manual  education  under  the  supervision  of  the  board,  since 
'a  knowledge  of  some  form  of  industrial  labor  is  as  necessary  as 
a  knowledge  of  books;  and  as  the  state  and  city  acknowledge 
their  obligation  to  teach  children  to  read  and  write,  they  can 
not  deny  their  obligation  to  teach  them  to  work,  as  the  latter 
is  as  essential  for  the  public  welfare  as  the  former.  Only  a 
small  portion  of  those  who  receive  their  education  in  the  public 
schools  ever  enter  the  professions,  but  the  large  number  become 
artisans  and  adopt  mechanical  occupations  for  their  future  sup- 
port.' On  petition,  the  city  council  empowered  the  school  com- 
missioners to  establish  the  school,  and  legislative  action  was 
taken  in  January,  1884.  In  March  of  the  same  year  the  school 
was  opened  with  60  students." " 

The  Chicago  Manual  Training  School,  established  in  1883 
as  an  incorporated  school  by  the  Commercial  Club  of  that  city, 
was  opened  in  January,  1884.  In  1885,  manual  training  schools 
were  established  in  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  Toledo.  Follow- 
ing this  date  similar  schools  were  organized  in  various  parts 
of  the  country,  until,  in  1890,  the  United  States  Commissioner 
reported  37  public  schools  offering  manual  training  courses. 

"The  oldest  society  for  the  promotion  of  Manual  Training  in 
this  country  is  the  Industrial  Education  Association  of  New 
York,  a  reorganization  of  the  Kitchen  Garden  Association  of 
the  same  city.  The  new  objects  of  the  association  since  its 
reorganization  in  1884,  are:  (i)  To  secure  the  introduction  of 
manual  training  as  an  important  factor  in  general  education 
and  to  promote  the  training  of  both  sexes  in  such  industries  as 
shall  enable  those  trained  to  become  self-supporting;  (2)  to 
devise  methods  and  systems  of  industrial  training,  and  to  put 


"  United  States  Commissioner's  Report,  1886-87,  P-  792. 


20       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

them  into  operation  in  schools  and  institutions  of  all  grades; 
(3)  to  provide  and  train  teachers  for  this  work."**  This  asso- 
ciation was,  in  the  main,  responsible  for  the  establishment  of  an 
industrial  normal  school  or  college  for  the  training  of  teachers, 
under  the  presidency  of  Dr.  Nicholas  Murray  Butler.  At  pres- 
ent there  are  several  societies  which  include  manual  training 
in  their  scope  of  activities,  but  most  of  them  deal  with  the  larger 
sphere  of  industrial  or  vocational  training. 

Massachusetts  supplemented  her  act  of  1872  by  approving  an 
act  in  1 884  relating  to  instruction  in  the  elementary  use  of  hand 
tools  in  public  schools.  An  act  providing  for  the  establishment 
of  schools  for  industrial  education  was  approved  in  New  Jer- 
sey, March  twenty-fourth,  1881.  This  was  followed  by  an 
act  for  the  promotion  of  manual  training,  approved  February 
fifteenth,  1888.  In  New  York  an  act  was  passed  in  1888  entitled : 
"An  act  to  authorize  the  establishment  and  maintenance  of 
departments  for  industrial  training  and  for  teaching  and  il- 
lustrating the  industrial  manual  arts  in  the  public  schools  and 
normal  schools  of  this  State."  Pennsylvania  approved  an  act 
June  twenty-fifth,  1883,  entitled:  "An  act  authorizing  central 
boards  of  education,  in  cities  of  the  second  class,  to  establish 
and  maintain  schools  for  instruction  in  the  mechanic  arts  and 
kindred  subjects."" 

Although  the  terminology  in  these  various  acts  is  different, 
it  would  appear  as  though  all  of  the  acts,  with  the  exception 
of  the  New  Jersey  act  of  1881,  refer  to  manual  training. 
Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  acts  are  not  mandatory,  very  few 
districts  took  immediate  advantage  of  the  provisions  made. 

New  York  City  was  one  of  the  first  cities  to  give  manual 
training  a  thorough  try-out  in  the  grammar  grades.  In  June, 
1887,  a  special  committee  of  the  Board  of  Education  sub- 
mitted a  report  to  the  board  containing  an  outline  of  a  course 
of  instruction  in  manual  training.  This  report  was  adopted  by 
unanimous  vote  of  the  board.  The  board  then  directed  that 
after   the  course  and   manual  should  be  prepared,    "manual 

**  United  States  Commissioner's  Report,  1886-87,  P-  790' 
**  These  acts  are  given  in  the  Report  of  the  Pennsylvania  Commission  on 
Industrial  Education,   1887-89,  pp.  28-34. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States    21 

training  should  be  tested  in  a  limited  number  of  grammar 
schools,  not  to  exceed  six  male  departments  and  six  female 
departments,  together  with  those  primary  schools  and  depart- 
ments only  that  promote  to  the  same,  and  that  a  reasonable 
time  be  allowed  for  the  experiment." 

In  the  same  year  a  resolution  was  approved  by  the  Governor 
of  Pennsylvania  which  authorized  him  to  appoint  a  commis- 
sion to  make  inquiry  respecting  the  subject  of  Industrial  Educa- 
tion. The  resolution  provided  that  the  commission  should 
make  an  examination  of  the  extent  to  which  industrial  educa- 
tion is  already  carried  on  in  Pennsylvania  and  elsewhere;  the 
best  means  of  promoting  and  maintaining  it  in  its  several  grades, 
whether  by  State  or  local  action  alone,  or  by  both  combined; 
how  far  it  is  possible  or  desirable  to  incorporate  it  into  the  ex- 
isting system  of  public  instruction;  the  best  method  of  training 
teachers  for  such  schools  or  departments,  and  what  changes, 
if  any,  are  required  in  the  existing  system  of  normal  schools  to 
enable  them  to  provide  such  training. 

"Industrial  education"  was  interpreted  by  the  committee  as 
follows:  "Industrial  education,  therefore,  we  understand  and 
use  as  meaning  primarily  education;  education  with  reference 
to  practical  life,  but  still  education;  the  training  of  the  hand, 
the  eye,  and  the  brain  to  work  in  unison;  the  training  of  the 
whole  child  in  such  a  way  that  his  inward  powers  may  act 
effectively  through  fit  instruments  upon  his  external  surround- 
ings, and  receive  from  them  in  turn  accurate  and  informing 
impressions.  It  involves  both  the  idea  of  manual  training  with 
reference  to  its  industrial  applications  and  the  idea  of  educational 
or  intellectual  training  which,  with  reference  to  industries,  must 
be  largely  on  the  scientific  side."" 

The  committee  made  a  thorough  and  exhaustive  investiga- 
tion of  industrial  and  manual  training  both  in  this  country 
and  abroad.  The  results  of  its  research  were  embodied  in  a 
comprehensive  report,  consisting  of  588  pages.  In  its  recom- 
mendations, the  committee  suggested  that  manual  training 
should  be  introduced  in  the  public  school  system  and  that  those 


"  Report  of  the  Pennsylvania  Commssion  on  Industrial  Education,  1887-89, 
p.  4. 


22      Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

prospective  teachers  enrolled  in  normal  schools  should  be  re- 
quired to  complete  at  least  the  equivalent  of  a  six-weeks'  course 
in  wood  work. 

Notwithstanding  the  growing  popularity  of  the  manual  train- 
ing movement,  it  was  not  yet  firmly  or  widely  established  in 
1890.  At  that  time  Mr.  Chas.  H.  Banes  prepared  a  paper  on 
the  "Manual  Training  and  Trade  Schools  in  1890"  for  the  trus- 
tees of  the  Williamson  Trade  School.  He  deplores  the  lack 
of  instruction  in  manual  training  in  the  public  schools  and  states 
that  "The  class  of  boys  who  would  apply  for  admission  into 
the  Williamson  Trade  School  would  to  a  great  extent  come  from 
the  public  schools,  and  without  previous  training  in  manual 
work.  This  condition  of  our  public  school  system  would  seem 
to  indicate  the  necessity  for  preliminary  work  at  the  William- 
son School,  in  the  establishment  of  a  primary  preparatory  de- 
partment of  manual  training  before  the  work  of  the  trade  school 
is  entered  upon. "2* 

It  was  about  this  time,  also,  that  those  who  were  opposed  to 
manual  training  attacked  it  most  vigorously.  The  movement 
did  not  have  easy  sailing.  Many  of  the  educators  of  the  coun- 
try could  not  adjust  themselves  to  the  idea  of  introducing  manual 
effort  into  a  scheme  of  education  which  they  felt  should  be  purely 
intellectual.  The  bitterness  with  which  the  opponents  of  man- 
ual training  attacked  it  can  be  readily  appreciated  if  a  few 
paragraphs  be  quoted  from  the  Report  of  the  Committee  bn 
Pedagogics  to  the  National  Council  in  July,  1889.  The  sub- 
ject of  the  report  is  "The  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Train- 
ing," and  it  is  signed  by  George  P.  Brown,  S.  S.  Parr,  J.  H 
Hoose,  and  W.  T.  Harris,  former  United  States  Commissioner 
of  Education. 

The  following  statements  are  made: 

"The  subject  of  the  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training 
has  come  to  be  of  prime  importance  by  reason  of  the  fact  that 
as  a  cause  it  serves  to  unite  not  only  the  critics  of  the  educa- 
tional system  already  existing,  but  also  its  uncompromising 
enemies."*' 


*'  Chas.  H.  Banes,  "  Manual  Training  and  Trade  Schools  in  1890,"  p.  12. 
*«C.  M.  Woodward,  "The  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training"  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  1890,  p.  85. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       23 

"Your  committee  understands  that  any  amount  of  manual 
training  conducted  in  a  school  is  no  equivalent  for  the  school 
education  in  letters  and  science,  and  ought  not  to  be  substituted 
for  it. 

"Just  for  the  very  reason  that  the  majority  have  before  hem 
a  life  of  drudgery,  the  period  of  childhood,  in  which  the  child 
has  not  yet  become  of  much  pecuniary  value  for  industry,  shall 
be  carefully  devoted  to  spiritual  growth,  to  training  the  intellect 
and  will,  and  to  building  the  basis  for  a  larger  humanity. 

"The  economic,  utilitarian  opposition  to  the  spiritual  educa- 
tion in  our  schools  comes  before  us  to  recommend  that  we  fore- 
cast the  horoscope  of  the  child,  and  in  view  of  his  future  possible 
life  of  drudgery,  make  sure  of  his  inability  to  ascend  above 
manual  toil  by  cutting  off  his  purely  intellectual  training,  and 
making  his  childhood  a  special  preparation  for  industry. 

"The  illiterate  manual  laborer,  no  matter  how  skillfully 
educated  for  his  trade  in  wood  and  metal  operations,  cannot 
read  or  write. 

"Work  in  the  trades  that  deal  with  wood  and  metals  (and 
these  include  the  entire  curriculum  of  the  manual  training 
school)  would  be  disadvantageous  to  the  delicate  touch  required 
by  the  laborer  on  textile  manufactures. 

"To  be  excellent  in  manual  training  would  not  prevent  him 
from  being  illiterate  and  a  bad  neighbor  and  a  bad  citizen — 
even  a  dynamiter."*^* 

Several  other  paragraphs  might  be  quoted,  but  the  above  is 
sufficient  to  show  the  attitude  of  the  committee.  The  agita- 
tion in  behalf  of  manual  training  was  still  in  its  infancy  at  this 
time,  and  such  an  arraignment  by  a  committee  composed  of 
men  of  considerable  standing  in  educational  circles  could  not 
help  but  have  a  deterrent  influence. 

The  unreasonableness  of  the  attack  is  now  manifest,  and  at 
the  time  it  was  issued  was  unfair.     It  is  quite  evident   that 


*^  C.  M.  Woodward,  "The  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training,"  D.  C. 
Heath  &  Co.,  1890,  pp.  86-93. 

*For  a  reply  to  this  report  see  Woodward,  "The  Educational  Value  of 
Manual  Training,"  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  1890. 


24       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

the  committee  was  either  prejudiced  against  manual  training, 
or  else  did  not  acquaint  itself  with  the  facts  as  they  existed.  The 
whole  argument  was  hurled  against  a  type  of  school  in  which 
trades  only  were  taught,  and  against  them  unjustly,  whereas 
the  better  type  of  manual  training  schools,  which  the  com- 
mittee was  to  discuss,  divided  the  time  about  equally  between 
manual  and  academic  branches. 

In  spite  of  the  opposition  to  the  manual  training  movement, 
it  enjoyed  a  gradual  growth  during  the  decade  following  the  year 
1890.  In  1900,  169  cities  of  over  4,000  inhabitants  are  reported 
in  which  the  public  schools  offered  courses  in  manual  training. 
During  the  last  twenty  years  the  growth  has  been  almost  phe- 
nomenal. In  1905,  there  were  420  cities  of  over  4,000  inhabit- 
ants with  public  schools  offering  courses  in  manual  training; 
in  1908,  671  cities;  in  191 1,  over  700  cities. 

The  introduction  of  manual  training  has  been  greatly  facil- 
itated by  legislation  in  many  states.  The  National  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education  has  compiled  the 
laws  of  the  several  states  on  Industrial  Education.  In  cal- 
culating statistics,  schools  of  secondary  grade  only  are  con- 
sidered. The  number  of  states  providing  for  manual  training 
is  18,  or  37%.  The  number  providing  state  aid  for  manual 
training  is  9,  or  19%. 

All  the  manual  training  of  secondary  grade  thus  far  provided 
for  by  state  legislation  may  be  classified  as  compulsory,  per- 
missive, and  subsidized.  Massachusetts  is  the  only  state  which 
has  enacted  a  statute  enforcing  instruction  in  manual  training. 
By  the  acts  of  1894  and  1898,  Massachusetts  required  cities  of 
twenty  thousand  inhabitants  to  include  manual  training  in 
their  elerhentary  and  high  school  courses.  This  law  contained 
no  provision  for  its  enforcement  and  has  not  been  very  exten- 
sively observed.  (Chap.  471,  Acts  1894;  Sec.  4,  Chap.  496, 
1898.)  The  following  states  permit  manual  training  by  laws 
enacted:  Illinois,  Indiana,  Kansas,  Kentucky,  Maine,  Massa- 
chusetts, Nevada,  Ohio,  Oregon,  Pennsylvania,  and  Wyoming. 
The  following  states  subsidize  manual  training:  Kansas,  Mary- 
land,   Michigan,    Minnesota,    New    Jersey,    Texas,    Vermont, 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       25 

Virginia,  and  Wisconsin.**     Up  to  June  191 1  no  further  legisla- 
tion was  enacted  with  respect  to  manual  training." 

An  appreciation  of  the  position  held  by  manual  training  in 
education  is  indicated  by  Professor  James  when  he  says,  "The 
most  colossal  improvement  which  recent  years  have  seen  in 
secondary  education  lies  in  the  introduction  of  the  manual 
training  schools;  not  because  they  will  give  us  a  people  more 
handy  and  practical  for  domestic  life  and  better  skilled  in  trades, 
but  because  they  will  give  us  a  citizen  with  an  entirely  different 
intellectual  fiber.  Laboratory  work  and  shop  work  engender 
a  habit  of  observation,  a  knowledge  of  the  difference  between 
accuracy  and  vagueness,  and  an  insight  into  nature's  complexity 
and  into  the  inadequacy  of  all  abstract  verbal  accounts  of 
real  phenomena  which,  once  wrought  into  the  mind,  remain 
there  as  lifelong  possessions.  They  confer  precision;  because 
if  you  are  doing  a  thing,  you  must  do  it  definitely  right  or  defin- 
itely wrong.  They  give  honesty;  for  when  you  express  your- 
self by  making  things,  and  not  by  using  words,  it  becomes  im- 
possible to  dissimulate  your  vagueness  or  ignorance  by  am- 
biguity. They  beget  a  habit  of  self-reliance;  they  keep  the 
interest  and  attention  always  cheerfully  engaged,  and  reduce 
the  teachers'  disciplinary  functions  to  a  minimum."'" 


^  Bulletin  No.  12,  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Educa- 
tion, Nov.,  1910,  pp.  57-60. 

*"  United  States  Commissioner's  Report,  191 1,  p.  149. 
"William  James,  "Talk  to  Teachers,"  p.  35. 


CHAPTER  II 

Conditions  Which  Led  to  the  Introduction  of  Manual 
Training:    Obstacles   Which   Retarded   its   Growth 

In  attempting  to  interpret  the  progress  of  the  world,  the 
political  economist  would  have  us  believe  that  every  improve- 
ment or  advance  made  in  civilization  may  be  reduced  to  economic 
terms.  In  such  manner  does  he  explain  war,  commerce,  the 
introduction  of  money,  industrial  evolution,  the  abolition  of 
slavery,  and  so  on.  He  contends  that  every  event  of  moment 
or  advance  in  civilization  has  its  cause  and  effect;  the  cause  always 
an  economic  one,  whatever  the  effect  may  be. 

We  may  readily  imagine  then,  that  the  economist  considers 
that  the  introduction  of  manual  training  into  the  educative  pro- 
cess has  been  due,  primarily,  to  economic  reasons.  And  con- 
ditions  seem  to  warrant  this  contention.  For  years,  after  coloni- 
zation had  been  started  in  this  country,  the  settlements  had 
comparatively  few  inhabitants ;  land  could  be  had  in  abundance 
by  those  who  had  sufficient  perseverance  to  clear  and  cultivate 
it,  and  industries  did  not  exist  except  those  that  could  be  per- 
formed at  the  home.  Such  were  the  conditions  under  which 
our  forefathers  lived,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century. 

At  that  time  the  United  States  was  a  nation  which  had  just 
secured  its  freedom.  Its  policy  consisted  largely  of  experiment 
and  trial.  Many  of  its  natural  resources  were  unknown  and 
others  were  but  imperfectly  developed.  Travel  was  undertaken 
only  when  necessary  because  of  its  slowness  and  tediousness. 
The  mail  service  was  inadequate,  hence  correspondence  was  not 
extensively  used.  Labor-saving  devices  were  yet  to  be  invented 
as  an  aid  to  the  nation  in  its  effort  to  secure  and  maintain  a 
prominent  position  among  the  powers  of  the  world. 

The  frontier  life  of  that  period  required  resourceful  and  self- 
reliant  men.     It  required  that  they  should  have  initiative  and 


Development  of  Mantial  Training  in  the  United  States       27 

perserverance  in  order  that  the  natural  resources  of  the  country 
might  be  developed  and  exploited.  How  well  these  requirements 
were  met  is  witnessed  by  the  fact  that  the  United  States  has 
-enjoyed  the  most  phenomenal  growth  of  any  nation  in  history. 
It  has  become  one  of  the  most  powerful  and  one  of  the  most 
wealthy  nations  of  the  day.  But  with  this  miraculous  growth 
have  occurred  three  changes  which  are  of  particular  interest 
in  connection  with  the  present  discussion:  i.  The  population 
has  been  changed  from  a  distinctly  rural  community  to  one  which 
is  largely  urban.  2.  Land  which  was  practically  free  is  about 
exhausted.  3.  There  has  been  a  wonderful  industrial  develop- 
ment in  the  country,  which  has  absorbed  many  of  the  industries 
which  were  formerly  performed  in  the  home. 

During  the  past  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  our  population 
has  increased  thirty-fold,  and  invention  and  industry  have  been 
instrumental,  to  a  large  extent,  in  concentrating  a  large  percent- 
age of  this  population  in  the  cities.  In  1790  there  were  but  six 
cities  of  eight  thousand  inhabitants,  or  more,  in  the  United 
States;  in  1810  there  were  eleven  such  cities;  in  1830,  twenty-six; 
in  1840,  forty-four ;  in  1890,  the  number  of  such  cities  had  increased 
to  four  hundred  and  forty-eight;  and  according  to  the  last  cen- 
sus report,  19 10,  the  number  reached  was  seven  hundred  and 
sixty.  In  1790,  the  urban  population  was  one  in  thirty  of  the 
total  population;  in  1840,  one  in  twelve;  and  at  the  present 
time,  it  is  about  one  in  three. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century,  land  could  be 
readily  obtained  by  those  who  desired  it.  Vast  tracts  were 
available,  only  awaiting  the  coming  of  the  frontiersman.  As  the 
population  increased,  so,  also,  did  our  boundary  line  become 
extended. 

As  the  line  of  civilization  kept  creeping  to  the  west,  the  more 
adventurous  spirits  pushed  further  on.  If  the  environment 
of  the  city  or  town  did  not  suit  the  tastes  of  an  individual,  he 
could  easily  find  a  place  on  the  frontier  with  practically  no  ex- 
pense other  than  the  hardships  which  must  necessarily  be  en- 
dured. But  this  mode  of  life  has  about  reached  its  limit.  The 
land  which  could  be  obtained  for  little  or  nothing  is  almost 
exhausted.     The  individual  must  now  be  content  with  city 


28       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

life  or  else  pay  a  substantial  price  for  land  in  the  country  which 
can  be  profitably  cultivated. 

But  the  most  remarkable  change  that  has  occurred  since  the 
formation  of  the  United  States  has  been  in  the  industrial  world. 
At  the  time  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  there  were  many 
home  industries,  division  of  labor  was  in  its  infancy,  and  many 
of  our  manufactured  articles  were  obtained  abroad. 

Flax  was  raised  and  sheep  were  sheared  on  the  farm.  The 
flax  was  dried,  hetcheled,  spun,  and  woven;  the  wool  was  washed, 
carded,  spun,  and  woven.  Then  the  clothes,  blankets,  linens, 
and  whatever  other  cloth  materials  were  needed,  were  made  at 
the  home.  Mittens  and  stockings  were  knitted,  bread  was  made, 
butter  was  churned,  fruits  were  dried,  soups  were  prepared,  and 
clothes  were  washed;  all  these  activities  were  performed  by  the 
housewife.  The  men  cut  the  grain  with  the  scythe  and  flailed 
it  by  hand;  in  fact,  practically  all  the  farmer's  labor  was  per- 
formed by  hand.  During  this  period,  about  96%  of  the  popu- 
lation of  the  United  States  lived  in  rural  communities.  Now 
in  a  great  many  homes,  most  of  these  industries  that  were  per- 
formed in  the  home  are  taken  care  of  by  the  factory,  the  bakery, 
the  dairy,  the  cannery,  and  the  laundry.  We  even  have  the 
vacuum  cleaner,  which  further  reduces  the  labor  of  the  housewife 
by  eff'ectively  cleaning  the  house  with  the  expenditure  of  but 
little  effort.  The  hard  manual  labor,  once  performed  by  the 
farmer  is  now  done  much  more  quickly  by  the  aid  of  machinery. 

It  is  not  so  many  years  since  our  shoes  were  made  in  their 
entirety  by  one  person;  the  same  may  be  said  of  our  clothing 
and  many  other  articles  of  every-day  usefulness.  But  now  we 
find  that  through  the  divisions  of  labor  which  have  become  more 
and  more  specific  and  highly  organized,  the  manufacture  of  a. 
single  pair  of  shoes  or  a  single  suit  of  clothes  requires  many 
different  operations,  to  each  of  which  is  assigned  a  particular 
individual  whose  sole  duty  is  to  attend  to  that  particular  opera- 
tion. 

"The  early  forms  of  industry  gave  the  worker  a  relatively 
broad  outlook;  division  of  labor  and  specialization  of  industries 
tend  to  narrow  this  vision.  As  the  division  becomes  more  and 
more  minute,  the  production  of  goods  requires  the  co-operation 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       29 

of  a  constantly  increasing  number  of  workers.  Each  one  forms 
but  a  link  in  a  great  industrial  chain,  and  consequently  sees  only  a 
minute  part  of  the  entire  operation  necessary  to  make  the  com- 
pleted article.  Machine  production  aims  at  making  a  uniform 
and  interchangeable  product.  The  workman  is  unfortunately 
bound  down  to  a  rigid  and  monotonous  routine;  he  becomes  in 
time  almost  automatic  in  his  movements.  He  struggles  blindly 
on,  working  and  producing,  without  recognizing  the  end  in  view, 
without  feeling  that  he,  himself,  is  an  integral  and  necessary 
factor  in  the  formation  and  operation  of  a  great  industrial  machine 
or  organism."'^ 

The  number  of  persons  engaged  in  industrial  pursuits  has  kept 
pace  pretty  well  with  the  industrial  development.  At  times  we 
hear  that  the  labor  market,  both  skilled  and  unskilled,  is  over- 
stocked, and  again  we  hear  that  is  is  underfed,  but  under  normal 
conditions  the  earnest  workers  can  find  employment  and  the 
fair  employer  can  obtain  workers.  Our  distribution  in  various 
occupations  can  be  seen  from  the  occupational  groups  in  the 
United  States,  1900. 

Occupational  Groups  Number 

Agricultural  Pursuits  10,381,765 

Professional  Service 1,258,538 

Domestic  and  Personal  Service 51580,657 

Trade  and  Transportation 4,766,964 

Manufacturing  and  Mechanical  Pursuits 7,085,309 


Total 29,073,233 


31 


The  number  of  those,  included  in  the  above,  who  are  engaged 
in  what  maybe  called  "cultural  occupations"  is  surprisingly  small. 

Teachers  and  Professors  in  College 446,133 

Clergymen 111,638 

Authors  and  Scientists 18,844 

Journalists 30,038 

Lawyers 1 14,460 

Officers,  local,  state,  and  national 86,607 

"F.  T.  Carlton,  "Education  and  Industrial  Evolution,"  p.  48. 
**" Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,"  191 1,  p.  235. 


30       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

Actors 34.760 

Artists  and  Teachers  of  Art 24,873 

Musicians  and  teachers  of  Music 92,174 

Dentists 29,665 

Physicians  and  Surgeons 132,002 

Total I,i2i,i94» 

During  the  past  century  also,  the  position  of  women,  owing^ 
to  different  social,  industrial,  and  educational  conditions,  has 
been  entirely  changed.  Formerly  her  place  was  in  the  home; 
now  she  enters  into  competition  with  men  in  almost  every  pur- 
suit. According  to  the  census  of  1900,  there  were  21,776,864 
females  in  this  country  between  the  ages  of  fifteen  and  sixty; 
5)3I9>397  females,  ten  years  of  age  and  upwards,  are  engaged  in 
gainful  occupations,  of  whom  485,767  are  between  the  ages  of 
ten  and  fifteen  years.'^  It  is  fair  to  assume  that  the  majority 
of  them  are  employed  in  cities  and  large  towns.  As  labor-saving 
devices  for  the  care  of  the  household  are  introduced  into  more 
homes,  the  proportion  of  the  female  wage  earners  will  undoubted- 
ly increase. 

We  have,  then,  these  three  economic  factors  which  have  been 
working  independently  of  each  other  for  many  years,  but  which 
have  been  very  closely  correlated.  The  exhaustion  of  public 
lands  and  the  development  of  industries  have  both  been  instru- 
mental in  directing  the  people  toward  the  city.  The  significance 
of  these  factors,  in  their  relation  to  the  educational  sytem,  can 
best  be  revealed  by  determining  whether  our  work  in  education 
has  kept  pace  with  them.  Have  the  needs  of  the  great  army, 
who  are  engaged  in  industrial  work,  been  properly  provided  for 
by  the  school;  are  the  millions  of  women,  who  are  now  employed 
outside  the  home,  being  so  trained  that  they  will  be  well  fitted 
to  take  up  the  burden  of  earning  a  living;  and  are  the  millions 
of  other  women  who  do  the  home-keeping  receiving  the  training 
requisite  for  their  future  betterment  and  happiness?  The  answer 
to  these  questions  may  be  found  in  the  demand  made  for  manual 
training  over  thirty  years  ago,  and  in  the  agitation  at  the  present 

^  "Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,"  191 1,  p.  235. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       31 

time  for  a  change  in  the  educative  process.  The  too  strict 
adherence  to  academic  subjects  gave  the  general  impression  that 
the  pubHc  school  had  not  kept  pace  with  the  changed  industrial 
and  economic  conditions,  hence  the  demand  for  the  introduction 
of  manual  work  in  the  school.  Perhaps  this  demand  was  not 
made  by  the  people  in  so  many  words,  but  the  lack  of  attendance 
and  the  great  numbers  of  pupils  that  dropped  out  have  been 
ample  evidence  that  the  school  did  not  properly  fill  its  mission. 

Educators  have  realized  for  a  long  time  that  the  public  school 
system  was  in  some  way  inadequate, — that  it  was  not  holding 
the  children  in  school.  It  was  felt  in  a  rather  indefinite  way  that 
the  conditions  enumerated  above  had  something  to  do  with  the 
difficulty, — but  it  was  not  until  careful  and  scientific  investi- 
gations were  made  that  the  causes  stood  out  clearly.  Professor 
Thorndike,  who  made  a  thorough  study  of  the  elimination  of 
pupils  from  schools,  estimates  that  the  general  tendency  of 
American  cities  of  25,000  inhabitants  and  over  is,  or  was  at 
about  1900,  to  keep  in  school  out  of  100  entering  pupils  90  till 
grade  4,  81  till  grade  5,  68  till  grade  6,  54  till  grade  7,  40  till  the 
last  grammar  grade  (usually  the  eighth  but  sometimes  the  ninth 
and  rarely  the  seventh),  27  till  the  first  high  school  grade,  17 
till  the  second,  12  till  the  third,  and  8  till  the  fourth.  It  will 
be  remembered  that  the  figures  for  public  schools  in  the  country 
as  a  whole  are  probably  much  lower  that  this.'^  He  goes  on  to 
say  that  "one  main  cause  of  elimination  is  incapacity  for,  and 
lack  of  interest  in,  the  sort  of  intellectual  work  demanded  by 
present  courses  of  study."'* 

This  condition  leads  to  a  consideration  of  two  factors  that 
might  be  called  "preventive  causes,"  i.  e.,  manual  training  was 
strongly  opposed  because  of  these  two  elements:  i.  The  strong 
belief  held  by  many  that  the  sole  aim  of  the  school  should  be  a 
cultural  one.  2.  The  domination  of  the  college  over  the  high 
school,  which  in  turn  dictates  the  course  in  the  lower  grades. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  Massachusetts  was  the  fore-runner 
in  education  in  America.     The  Pilgrims  were  a  religious  people, 


"  E.  L.  Thorndike,  "The  Elimination  of  Pupils  from  School,"  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  1908,  p.  11. 
'"  Ibid,  p.  10. 


32       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

many  of  whom  were  highly  educated.  They  had  had  schools 
at  home,  hence  it  was  expedient  that  they  introduce  schools  in 
the  new  country.  Furthermore,  if  their  children  were  to  be 
brought  upproperly,  they  must  be  taught  to  read,  that  they  might 
read  and  interpret  the  Scriptures  for  themselves.  Consequently, 
on  Nov.  II,  1647,  the  general  court  enacted  a  general  school  law 
which  ordered  "That  every  township  in  this  jurisdiction,  after 
the  Lord  hath  increased  them  to  the  number  of  fifty  householders, 
shall  then  forthwith  appoint  one  within  their  town  to  teach  all 
such  children  as  shall  resort  to  him  to  write  and  read, ;  and 

"It  is  further  ordered,  that  where  any  town  shall  increase  to 
the  number  of  100  families  or  householders,  they  shall  set  up  a 
grammar  school,  the  master  thereof  being  able  to  instruct  youth 
so  far  as  they  may  be  fitted  for  the  University.  Provided,  that 
if  any  town  neglect  the  performance  hereof  above  one  year,  that 
every  such  town  shall  pay  five  pounds  to  the  next  school  until 
they  shall  perform  this  order."^^  Previous  to  this  date.  Harvard 
had  been  established,  so  that  by  this  Act  provision  was  made 
for  a  continuous  course  of  instruction  through  the  University. 

"The  supreme  problems  which  presented  themselves  to  the 
leaders  in  early  Massachusetts  history  were  intellectual  problems, 
— problems  of  church  and  state.  To  establish  and  develop  a 
self-governing  community  under  the  new  conditions  which  con- 
fronted them  demanded  intelligence  of  a  high  order  and  widely 
diffused.  These  men,  themselves  educated  in  the  most  advanced 
learning  of  the  time,  saw  in  the  study  of  classic  languages  and 
mathematics  a  means  of  developing  the  power  of  concentrated 
and  sustained  thought,  of  clear  and  logical  reasoning,  and  of 
balanced  judgment.  They  believed  that  the  study  of  the  history 
and  literature  of  the  past  tended  to  widen  the  horizon  of  thought, 
to  bring  to  the  solution  of  the  problem  of  today  the  experiences 
of  yesterday,  so  that  the  successes  and  failures  of  other  peoples 
in  other  times  might  serve  as  guides  and  warnings  for  people 
here  and  now.  They  called  this  a  liberal  education — an  educa- 
tion that  liberated,  that  freed  from  the  bondage  of  narrow  and 


"  Hinsdale,  "Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  School  Revival  in  the  United 
States,"  p.  4. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       33 

local   prejudice,   and   made   the    vision   of   life   keen  and   far- 
sighted. "^s 

It  is  to  be  observed  that,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the 
act  of  1647,  all  the  children  who  might  apply  were  to  be  taught 
reading  and  writing.  To  these,  arthimetic  was  added  some  time 
afterwards.  It  was  the  specific  duty  of  the  grammar  school  to 
prepare  for  the  university.  The  task  of  the  university  was  to 
prepare  its  students  to  take  up  the  problems  of  Church  and 
State.  The  curriculum  of  the  college  consisted  largely  of  Latin, 
Greek,  History,  Literature,  a  little  Mathematics,  Logic,  and 
Theology.  The  whole  procedure  was  distinctly  cultural.  No 
provision  was  made  for  the  manual  worker  other  than  reading 
and  writing. 

Many  of  the  other  New  England  States  followed  the  laws 
established  by  Massachusetts.  Connecticut,  New  Hampshire, 
Maine,  and  Vermont  were  all  more  or  less  dependencies  of 
Massachusetts  and  followed  her  educational  institutions  to  a  cer- 
tain extent.  The  other  states  were  for  many  years  far  behind  the 
New  England  States  in  matters  pertaining  to  education.  "  For 
this  there  were  many  reasons,  some  external  and  some  internal. 
Nowhere  outside  of  New  England  do  we  find  that  intense 
town  life  which  did  so  much  to  stimulate  men's  minds,  including 
schools  and  learning.  And  nowhere  else  save  among  the  Scotch 
Irish  of  the  frontiers  did  the  prevailing  types  of  religious  belief 
and  ecclesiastical  organization  tend  so  strongly  to  diffuse  intelli- 
gence and  promote  education.  There  was  a  wide  interval  between 
the  planters  of  the  South,  for  instance,  and  the  farmers,  lawyers, 
ministers,  and  tradesmen  of  the  New  England  States.  Learning 
held  no  such  place  in  the  minds  of  the  one  as  in  the  minds  of  the 
other.  The  typical  Virginian  was  a  man  of  vigorous  faculties, 
knowledge  of  the  world,  force  of  character,  and  book  education 
sufficient  for  his  purposes: — but  he  was  no  theologian,  dialec- 
tician, or  scholar."'* 

Writing  in  1 824-1 825,  Mr.  James  G.  Carter,  to  whom  Dr. 
Barnard  gives  the  credit  of  having  first  attracted  the  attention 

""Report  of  the  Massachusetts  Industrial  Education  Com.,"  p.  8. 
^  Hinsdale,  "Horace  Mann  and  the  Common  School  Revival  in  the  United 
States,"  p.  34. 


34       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

of  the  leading  minds  of  Massachusetts  to  the  necessity  of  immed- 
iate and  thorough  improvement  in  the  system  of  free  or  public 
schools,  states  that  the  subjects  taught  in  all  the  schools  were 
reading,  spelling,  and  English  grammar;  in  the  better  schools, 
v/riting,  arithmetic,  history,  and  geography  were  taught  in  addi- 
tion.'*" Horace  Mann  was  largely  responsible  for  the  introduc- 
tion of  hygiene,  which  practically  completed  the  list  of  subjects 
up  to  the  time  when  manual  training  was  introduced.  The 
scope  of  the  work  of  the  various  subjects  mentioned  was  extended 
and  amplified,  but  mental  work  only  was  deemed  of  importance. 

This  same  period  also  "witnessed  the  gradual  destruction  of 
domestic  industry  and  the  development  of  the  factory  system. 
Improvements  and  inventions  in  various  lines  of  manufacture 
and  communication  followed  each  other  in  rapid  succession. 
The  Embargo  Act,  the  War  of  1812,  the  shipping  regulations 
of  foreign  nations,  adopted  subsequent  to  the  war,  and  the 
westward  movement  tended  to  rapidly  shift  capital  and  enter- 
prise, particularly  in  New  England,  from  commerce  to  manu- 
facture. Canal  and  railroad  building  followed,  immigration 
multiplied  rapidly,  the  towns  increased  in  size  and  importance, 
manufacture  became  an  important  economic  interest.  "^^ 

Notwithstanding  these  constantly  changing  conditions,  the 
cultural  form  of  education,  which  was  outlined  for  the  benefit 
of  those  who  were  to  have  charge  of  Church  and  State  affairs, 
was  still  considered  to  best  fit  the  needs  of  everyone.  The  form 
had  changed  very  little,  but  the  scope  was  greatly  enlarged. 
Those  who  had  entered  industrial  and  mechanical  pursuits,  and 
the  girls  who  were  now  permitted  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  an 
education,  could  all  be  educated  to  the  best  advantage  by  pur- 
suing this  same  course  of  study.  The  theory  seems  to  have  been 
that  that  which  educates  for  culture  educates  also  for  life-work. 

In  fact,  the  cultural  value  of  education  became  so  deeply 
embedded  in  the  minds  of  educators,  that  when  the  demand  for 
manual  training  was  made,  it  was  based  mainly  on  the  argu- 
ment that  it  possessed  elements  of  culture  peculiar  to  itself. 

^"Hinsdale,   "Horace  Mann  and   the    Common   School    Revival  in  the 
United  States,"  pp.  29  and  56. 
**  Carlton,  "Educational  and  Industrial  Evolution,"  p.  29. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States      35 

Other  arguments  were  presented,  of  course,  but  the  chief  one 
represented  the  cultural  value  of  manual  training  in  order  to 
meet  the  strong  opposition  of  those  who  feared  the  introduction 
of  an  utilitarian  subject. 

For  a  long  time  it  was  believed  that  the  training  and  mental 
development,  obtained  by  the  pursuit  of  some  of  the  time- 
honored  subjects,  as  history,  geography,  mathematics,  language, 
science,  etc.,  was  of  such  a  character  that  it  might  be  applied  to 
other  subjects  or  to  vocations  with  equal  force.  At  the  same 
time  culture  was  being  acquired,  a  general  knowledge  of  many 
subjects  was  obtained,  which  assured  the  individual  of  some 
social  standing,  perhaps,  but  did  little  toward  aiding  him  in 
practical  affairs.  In  recent  years  psychology  has  done  much 
to  discredit  this  view.  The  psychologists  have  questioned  the 
belief  that  the  mental  characteristics  acquired  from  the  study 
of  some  one  subject  can  be  applied  to  the  study  of  another  sub- 
ject with  the  same  results.  Furthermore,  it  has  been  argued 
that  any  one  who  follows  a  vocational  course  will  necessarily 
become  interested  in  allied  subjects  to  such  an  extent  that  he 
will  obtain  whatever  culture  is  necessary.  If  this  be  true,  those 
who  work  in  industries  could  readily  make  their  leisure  hours 
profitable.  In  any  scheme  of  education  it  is  essential  that  the 
work  be  so  balanced  that  those  who  take  part  in  it  learn  to  make 
intelligent  use  of  their  leisure  time. 

In  the  early  history  of  our  country  the  grammar  school  and  the 
academy  were  the  closest  approach  to  the  high  school  of  the 
present  day.  But  the  grammar  school  was  subservient  to  the 
college,  and  the  course  of  study  was  shaped  according  to  college 
dictation.  The  function  of  the  academy  was  principally  to 
afford  boys  and  girls  who  did  not  wish  to  go  to  college  an  oppor- 
tunity to  obtain  a  degree  of  general  culture  and  practical  effi- 
ciency. It  was  controlled  by  a  close  corporation  and  was  rather 
expensive.  Consequently,  the  demand  arose  that  there  be  a 
school  established  differing  materially  from  the  grammar  school 
and  the  academy,  and  that  it  be  maintained  at  the  public  expense. 

Boston  was  the  first  city  to  listen  to  the  demand  that  such 
a  school  be  established.  In  1821  the  "English  Classical  School" 
was  opened .    I  ts  name  was  changed  to  the ' '  Engl  ish  H  igh  School '  * 


36       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

in  1824.  The  precedent  set  by  Boston  was  followed  by  New 
York,  when  a  high  school  for  boys  was  established  in  1825,  and 
a  similar  school  for  girls  in  the  following  year;  both  of  which, 
however,  suspended  operations  in  1831. 

The  growth  of  the  High  School  was  very  slow  until  i860,  when 
United  States  Commissioner  Harris  estimated  that  there  were 
about  forty  in  the  country.  Since  that  time  the  growth  has  been 
almost  phenomenal.  In  1870  there  were  160  high  schools;  in 
1880,  800;  in  1890,  2536;  in  1900,  6005;  in  1911,  10,234. 

It  is  to  be  remembered  that  when  the  high  school  was  started 
there  was  no  relation  between  it  and  the  college.  The  original 
aim  of  the  high  school  was  that  it  should  serve  only  those  who  did 
not  want  to  go  to  college.  Naturally,  such  a  standard  was 
thought  to  be  too  narrow  as  time  went  on.  The  feeling  that  a 
course  should  be  introduced  into  the  high  school  which  would 
prepare  for  college  became  stronger  and  stronger.  The  colleges 
were  not  slow  to  realize  that  the  high  schools  might  become 
larger  contributors  to  their  respective  student  bodies,  so  they 
brought  a  powerful  influence  to  bear  upon  the  introduction  of 
college  preparatory  courses.  The  argument  was  that  what  was 
a  good  preparation  for  college  was  a  good  preparation  for  life. 
This  influence  became  so  great  that,  for  a  long  time,  the  colleges 
practically  dominated  the  high  schools  and  arbitrarily  dictated 
entrance  requirements,  which  the  high  schools  had  to  meet. 

The  natural  result  of  such  an  extreme  position  is  that  the 
pendulum  has  started  to  swing  back,  so  that  the  argument  of  the 
colleges  has  been  reversed,  and  the  high  schools  contend  that 
what  is  a  good  preparation  for  life  is  a  good  preparation  for 
college. 

As  an  outcome  of  this  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  colleges, 
the  high  schools  have  demanded  that  certain  changes  be  made  in 
the  college  entrance  requirements.  At  this  point  two  questions 
present  themselves: 

1.  What  are  the  elements  which  have  caused  this  revolt  on 
the  part  of  the  high  school? 

2.  What  is  the  function  of  the  college,  or  rather,  what  are 
the  functions  of  college  entrance  requirements?  Are  they  to 
determine  the  student's  knowledge  of  certain  branches,  or  are 
they  an  attempt  to  determine  his  fitness  to  do  college  work? 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       37 

In  relation  to  the  first  question,  it  is  a  well  known  fact  that 
within  the  last  forty  or  fifty  years  the  entrance  requirements 
in  almost  all  of  our  colleges  have  been  doubled.  A  brief  review 
of  the  mathematical  requirements  will  show  this  very  clearly. 
In  1802,  a  knowledge  of  mathematics  was,  for  the  first  time, 
required  for  entrance  to  Harvard.  Even  then  the  candidate  was 
only  required  to  cover  Arithmetic  up  to  the  "Rule  of  Three." 
After  1 8 16,  the  whole  of  Arithmetic  was  required  for  admission. 
In  1819  a  trifling  amount  of  Algebra  was  added.  The  catalogue 
of  1825  specifies  the  requirements  as  follows:  Fundamental 
rules  of  Arithmetic;  vulgar  and  decimal  fractions;  proportion, 
simple  and  compound;  single  and  double  fellowship;  allegation, 
medial  and  alternate;  and  Algebra;  to  the  end  of  simple  equations, 
comprehending,  also,  the  doctrine  of  roots  and  powers,  and 
arithmetical  and  geometrical  progression.  In  1841,  Euler's 
Algebra  or  the  "First  Lessons  in  Algebra"  was  required.  No 
other  changes  were  made  until  1843.  The  catalogue  for  that 
year  mentions  for  admission,  Davies'  "First  Lessons  in  Algebra" 
to  extraction  of  square  root  and  an  introduction  to  Geometry, 
from  the  most  approved  Prussian  text  books,  to  VII  of  propor- 
tion." 

As  taken  from  the  university  catalogue,  the  minimum  re- 
quirements in  mathematics  for  admission  in  1 888-1 889,  were 
as  follows:  Algebra,  through  quadratic  equations,  and  Plane 
Geometry.  The  requirements  at  the  present  time  are  essentially 
the  same.  But  Harvard  is  more  liberal  in  these  requirements 
than  most  of  the  colleges  and  universities.  The  majority  require 
Algebra,  through  progressions.  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry.  The 
technical  schools  require  even  more  advanced  Algebra  and  Plane 
and  Spherical  Trigonometry  in  addition.  In  a  little  over  a 
hundred  years,  the  requirements  have  advanced  from  absolutely 
nothing  to  the  list  just  given.  The  increase  in  the  requirements 
in  many  of  the  other  subjects  have  been  proportionate. 

In  the  second  place,  the  high  school  is  a  tax-supported  institu- 
tion. Since  there  is  less  than  one  in  six  of  those  who  go  to  the 
high  schools  that  go  to  college,  the  community  has  a  right  to 


♦"Cajori,  "The  Teaching  and  History  of  Mathematics,"  p.  131. 


^^i^^~\^~\. 


38       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

demand  and  the  high  school  teachers  appreciate  the  justice  of 
the  demand,  that  the  courses  of  study  should  be  so  constructed 
as  to  be  of  the  greatest  benefit  to  the  individual  when  he  takes 
his  place  in  the  community. 

Many  colleges  refuse  to  give  credit  for  such  courses.  They 
suggest  that  if  the  high  school  feels  obliged  to  meet  the  above 
condition  it  should  establish  a  college  preparatory  course  and 
a  course  which  shall  prepare  for  life.  Such  a  policy  is  imprac- 
ticable in  the  small  communities,  because  of  the  greater  expense 
that  would  be  incurred.  The  high  schools  have  endeavored 
to  adapt  themselves  to  new  conditions  which  have  arisen,  whereas 
many  colleges  and  universities  have  maintained  their  time-hon- 
ored customs,  have  made  no  attempt  to  meet  new  conditions, 
and  will  give  no  credit  for  new  subjects  which  have  been  intro- 
duced into  the  high  school  courses. 

The  second  question  presents  greater  difficulties.  It  ought 
to  be  fair  to  assume  that  one  of  the  functions  of  a  college  is  to 
permit  a  pupil  to  show  that  he  can  do  college  work,  irrespective 
of  how  much  knowledge  he  has  in  different  subjects.  Of  course, 
certain  college  courses  require  a  definite  amount  of  preliminary 
work  which  is  continued  in  college.  For  instance,  it  is  not  to 
be  expected  that  a  boy  who  has  pursued  a  non-classical  course 
should  be  admitted  to  the  classical  course  in  college.  This  work 
should  be  considered  as  essential  under  the  favorable  conditions, 
recommendations,  etc.,  necessary  before  he  is  considered  eligible 
to  entrance  in  college.  But  I  wish  to  emphasize  the  fact  that 
when  a  student  has  completed  his  high  school  course  satisfac- 
torily there  should  be  a  course  in  the  college  or  university  ready 
to  receive  him. 

The  University  of  Illinois,  a  short  time  ago,  sent  the  following 
statement  to  every  high  school  principal  in  the  State:  "The 
chief  purpose  of  your  high  school  is  to  prepare  the  boy  for  the 
business  of  making  a  living,  and  the  university  believes,  on  the 
whole,  that  it  will  require  as  good  a  training  to  make  him  a  success 
in  life  as  it  will  to  make  him  a  success  in  the  university.  We 
propose,  therefore,  to  leave  you  free  to  determine  the  needs  of 
your  community  and  to  prepare  your  boys  and  girls  for  success  in 
that  community.     We  shall  then  admit  them  to  such  courses  in 


Development  oj  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       39 

the  university  as  will  best  supplement  the  education  you  have 
given  them  and  best  fit  them  for  larger  spheres  of  influence  and 
of  service."  The  stand  taken  by  the  University  of  Illinois  is  in 
accord  with  the  recommendations  of  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
which  was  appointed  to  investigate  the  articulation  of  the  High 
School  and  College.  In  its  report  for  1893,  we  find  the  following: 
"There  is  a  general  principle  concerning  the  relation  of  the 
secondary  schools  to  colleges,  which  the  Committee  of  Ten, 
inspired  and  guided  by  the  conferences,  find  it  their  duty  to 
set  forth  with  all  possible  distinctness. 

"The  secondary  schools  of  the  United  States,  taken  as  a  whole 
do  not  exist  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  boys  and  girls  for  col- 
leges. Only  an  insignificant  percentage  of  the  graduates  of 
those  schools  go  to  colleges  or  scientific  schools.  A  secondary 
school  program  intended  for  national  use  must  therefore  be 
made  for  those  children  whose  education  is  not  to  be  pursued 
beyond  the  high  school.  The  preparation  of  a  few  pupils  for 
college  or  scientific  school  should  in  the  ordinary  secondary 
school  be  the  incidental  and  not  the  principal  object.  At  the 
same  tim.e  it  is  obviously  desirable  that  the  colleges  and  scientific 
schools  should  be  accessible  to  all  boys  and  girls  who  have  com- 
pleted creditably  the  secondary  school  course — in  order  that 
any  successful  graduate  of  a  good  secondary  school  should  be 
free  to  present  himself  at  the  gates  of  the  college  or  scientific 
school  of  his  choice,  it  is  necessary  that  the  colleges  and  scientific 
schools  of  the  country  should  accept,  for  admission  to  appropriate 
courses  of  their  instruction,  the  attainments  of  any  youth  who 
has  passed  creditably  through  a  good  secondary  school  course, 
no  matter  to  what  group  of  subjects  he  may  have  mainly  devoted 
himself  in  the  secondary  school.  As  secondary  school  courses 
are  now  too  often  arranged,  this  is  not  a  reasonable  request  to 
prefer  to  the  colleges  and  scientific  schools;  because  the  pupil 
may  now  go  through  a  secondary  school  course  of  a  very  feeble 
and  scrappy  nature,  studying  a  little  of  many  subjects,  and  not 
much  of  any  one,  getting  perhaps  a  little  information  in  a  variety 
of  fields,  but  nothing  which  can  be  called  a  thorough  training."" 


«J.  F.  Brown,  "The  American  High  School,"  p.  58. 


40       Development  of  Mamial  Training  in  the  United  States 

Unquestionably,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  the  final 
sentence  of  this  general  principle.  In  order  that  the  demands  of 
the  high  schools  may  have  a  hearing  and  be  approved  it  is  the 
duty  of  every  high  school  principal  to  see  to  it  that  his  course  is 
such  a  one  as  may  be  included  under  the  heading  of  a  good  secon- 
dary school  course. 

In  some  districts,  notably  the  South,  the  high  schools  are 
not  alone  to  blame.  We  find  colleges  catering  to  pupils  who  have 
not  finished  their  high  school  course.  As  an  illustration,  I 
quote  a  statement  from  a  recent  report  of  Prof.  William  H.  Hand, 
inspector  of  high  schools  of  South  Carolina.  He  states :  "  Reports 
show  that  the  colleges  of  this  and  nearby  states  have  in  their 
college  classes,  from  the  schools  of  this  state,  nearly  200  pupils 
from  the  ninth  grades  and  more  than  forty  pupils  from  the  eighth 
grades.  One  half  the  colleges  of  this  state  have  now  last  year's 
tenth  grade  pupils  in  their  sophomore  classes."  Under  such 
circumstances  it  is  not  a  surprise  that  the  high  schools  in  those 
districts  were  for  a  long  time  in  a  state  of  lethargy. 

The  demands  of  the  high  school  may  be  briefly  summed  up  as 
follows : 

1.  That  the  number  and  amount  of  required  subjects  be  cut 
down. 

2.  That  colleges  admit  by  certificate. 

3.  That  credit  be  given  for  standard  subjects  taught  in  high 
schools. 

I.  Many  colleges  and  universities  have  recognized  the  reason- 
ableness of  the  first  demand  and  have  diminished  the  number 
of  required  subjects.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  the  number 
of  specified  subjects  is  so  numerous  and  the  fixed  requirements 
so  great  in  many  instances  that  the  high  school  principal  is 
severely  handicapped  in  the  preparation  of  his  course  of  study. 

Some  idea  of  the  diversity  of  practice  in  the  number  of  speci- 
fied units  for  admittance  to  college  may  be  had  from  a  review 
of  the  statistics  collected  by  the  "Carnegie  Foundation  for  the 
Advancement  of  Teaching."  In  1909,  there  were  64  institu- 
tions on  the  accepted  list  of  the  Foundation,  each  of  which  re- 
quired at  least  14  units  for  admission. 

The  number  of  specified  units  required  range  all  the  way  from 
none  at  Clark  University  to  14.5  at  the  New  York  University. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       41 

Nine  of  the  universities  require  from  none  to  5,  inclusive,  speci- 
fied units;  16  require  from  5.1  to  8,  inclusive;  28  require  from 
8.1  to  II,  inclusive;  9  require  from  ii.i  to  14,  inclusive;  and  3 
require  more  than  14  units.  Only  5  specify  the  total  number  of 
units  required  for  admission.  Although  these  statistics  are  not 
exhaustive  they  give  a  fair  idea  of  the  general  practice. 

At  a  recent  meeting  of  a  New  England  Association  of  Colleges 
and  Preparatory  Schools  the  following  motion  was  passed  with 
but  a  single  dissenting  vote: 

"I  move  that  it  is  the  sense  of  the  Association  that  the  re- 
quirements for  admission  to  college  would  be  improved  by  the 
introduction  of  changes  or  modifications  in  the  direction  of  the 
six  recommendations  made  by  Dr.  Farrand." 

These  recommendations  were: 

1.  That  elementary  Algebra  end  with  quadratics. 

2.  That  in  geometry  a  syllabus  of  essential  propositions  be 
made. 

3.  That  the  mathematical  work  in  Physics  be  reduced. 

4.  That  Latin  and  Greek  composition  be  eliminated  or  reduced. 

5.  That  in  English  requirements  there  shall  be  a  reduction  on 
the  emphasis  placed  on  the  knowledge  of  specific  books. 

6.  That  the  field  in  ancient  history  be  reduced  to  reasonable 
limits. 

A  short  time  ago  the  High  School  Teachers'  Association  of 
New  York  City  recommended,  among  other  things,  that  but  one 
foreign  language  be  required  for  admission  to  college,  and  that 
a  more  liberal  amount  of  electives  in  science  be  permitted. 

The  justice  of  the  demand  that  but  one  foreign  language  be 
required  for  admission  has  been  recognized  by  many  colleges  and 
universities,  and  they  have  accordingly  adjusted  their  require- 
ments to  meet  this  request. 

This  is  more  particularly  true  of  western  institutions.  The 
universities  of  Illinois,  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Michigan,  Mis- 
souri, Virginia,  Wisconsin,  and  many  others  require  one  foreign 
language  for  admission,  and  quite  a  number  do  not  require  any. 

II.  Generally  speaking,  the  East  advocates  entrance  by  ex- 
amination, the  North  Central  States  favor  the  inspection  plan, 
and  institutions  located  in  various  parts  of  the  country  advocate 
entrance  by  certificate. 


42        Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

Those  who  advocate  admission  to  college  by  examination  con- 
tend that  a  better  class  of  students  is  obtained  by  this  system 
than  by  any  other.  But  the  objection  is  raised  that  those 
teachers  who  have  charge  of  the  instruction  of  pupils  who  are 
preparing  for  such  examinations  conduct  their  work  with  the 
ultimate  view  of  preparing  directly  for  those  examinations  rather 
than  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  for  the  duties  and  activities  in 
life  which  the  pupils  will  be  called  upon  to  perform.  This  ob- 
jection seems  to  be  sustained  by  the  fact  that  the  colleges  which 
admit  only  by  examination  are  the  only  ones  which  draw  a 
greater  percentage  of  students  from  private  schools  than  from 
public  schools. 

The  certificate  plan  has  met  with  considerable  approval  both 
from  the  high  school  and  the  college,  but  even  here  the  objection 
is  raised  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  shut  out  the  average  student 
from  college  privileges  on  account  of  the  grades  demanded. 

The  North  Central  States  have  been  enthusiastic  in  their 
praise  of  the  system  of  inspecting  and  accrediting  high  schools 
which  the  universities  have  developed.  The  objection  to  this 
system  is  that  the  control  of  the  high  school  has  been  too  strongly 
centralized  in  the  university,  which,  in  turn,  has  used  the  high 
school  to  its  own  end. 

It  is  obvious  that  every  system  proposed  would  be  open  to 
criticism,  but  if  the  state  department  of  education  of  each  state 
would  develop  an  efficient  and  sufficient  corps  of  high  school 
inspectors  whose  duty  it  should  be  to  stimulate  and  encourage  the 
high  schools  of  the  state  and  endeavor  to  have  them  maintain  a 
course  which  could  be  considered  a  good  secondary  course,  the 
objections  would  be  minimized.  This  should,  in  no  way,  however, 
give  the  inspectors  the  power  to  dictate  the  course  to  be  used  in 
any  given  locality. 

The  colleges  and  the  universities  of  the  state  should  then 
admit  a  graduate  of  any  such  high  school  to  some  one  of  their 
courses. 

III.  Perhaps  the  most  difficult  problem  that  high  school 
principals  have  to  deal  with  in  recent  years,  has  been  that  the 
colleges  and  universities  would  not  recognize  or  give  credit  for 
certain  courses  offered  in  the  high  school. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States        43 

However,  through  the  persistence  and  perseverance  of  the 
high  school  teachers  and  principals  the  outlook  has  become  much 
more  encouraging.  According  to  a  recent  Bulletin  of  College 
Entrance  Examinations  issued  by  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Education,  there  are  now  among  203  colleges  of  liberal  arts,  97 
which  recognize  shopwork,  88  commercial  subjects,  80  agricul- 
tural, and  79  household  science.  The  institutions  which  recognize 
for  entrance  any  subject  that  an  approved  high  school  counts  in 
its  graduation  requirements  are  growing,  except  apparently 
among  women's  colleges. 

A  few  colleges  give  credit  for  all  well  conducted  courses  in 
the  high  school,  and  many  others  have  adjusted  their  entrance  re- 
quirements so  as  to  give  credit  to  some  of  the  vocational  subjects, 
but  there  are  still  a  great  many  colleges  and  universities  which 
have  thus  far  turned  a  deaf  ear  to  all  arguments.  It  is  to  these 
institutions  that  the  high  schools  must  continue  to  make  their 
appeal. 

The  Committee  on  College  Entrance  Requirements  in  Mathe- 
matics and  Science,  appointed  in  June,  1909,  submitted  resolu- 
tions for  adoption  in  191 1,  among  which  were  the  following: 

"Whereas — The  present  high  school  courses  have  been  sub- 
jected to  trenchant  criticism,  especially  from  the  industrial  and 
business  worlds,  chiefly  because  present  courses  give  insufficient 
attention  to  vocational  training  or  to  the  future  work  of  the  child, 
and  this  has  been  one  of  the  causes  contributing  to  the  loss  from 
the  high  school  of  both  boys  and  girls  who  would  profit  largely 
by  courses  that  would  more  directly  prepare  them  to  meet  the 
actual  demands  of  business  and  of  manufacturing  life ;  and 

"Whereas — ^Although  we  recognize  the  great  benefits  that 
have  come  in  the  past  to  the  secondary  school  through  college 
entrance  requirements,  we  yet  believe  that  the  present  excessive 
severity  of  these  requirements  along  certain  traditional  lines  and 
the  failure  of  the  colleges  to  recognize  the  educational  value  of 
vocational  courses  toward  college  admission,  are  conditions  which 
very  seriously  hamper  the  freedom  of  the  secondary  schools  and 
prevent  necessary  investigation,  repeated  experiment,  and  suc- 
cessful development  of  courses  to  meet  present  needs  and  edu- 
cational growth:  therefore  be  it 


44       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

"Resolved — ^That  we  request  the  college  to  consider  whether 
the  work  done  by  its  students  in  college  does  not  in  large  part 
furnish  a  better  basis  for  testing  the  efficiency  of  school  prepara- 
tion than  do  the  present  methods  of  entrance  examination  and 
of  official  inspection ;  and 

"Resolved — That  as  we  consider  the  larger  and  the  more 
important  duty  of  the  secondary  school  is  the  preparation  of  the 
students  for  immediate  entrance  upon  useful  life  in  their  com- 
munities, we  believe  the  college  should  cease  to  discriminate 
against  subjects  that  the  schools  find  necessary  in  preparing 
their  pupils  for  such  studies."^* 

The  new  entrance  requirements  of  Michigan,  Chicago,  Harvard, 
and  Pennsylvania  are  now  formulated  very  much  along  the  lines 
suggested  in  this  report.  While  Harvard  continues  to  demand 
examinations,  they  are  less  objectionable  both  in  number  and  in 
form  than  of  old,  and  mark  real  progress  in  the  direction  of  giving 
the  school  sufficient  freedom.  The  demands  of  the  colleges 
named  above  are  now  so  rational  as  to  give  little  reason  for 
criticism. 

Quite  recently  the  High  School  Teachers'  Association  of  New 
York  City  has  taken  a  step  which  should  bear  fruit  and  which 
other  high  school  teachers'  associations  might  profitably  follow. 
A  committee  was  appointed  to  investigate  the  present  college 
entrance  requirements  and  to  endeavor  to  bring  about  a  better 
articulation  of  the  high  school  and  college.  The  committee 
suggested  two  methods  of  improving  the  situation: 

I.  "That  college  entrance  be  based  upon  the  simple  fact 
of  graduation  from  a  four  years'  course  in  a  first  class  high  school." 

2  (a).  "That  the  so-called  'required'  subjects  be  reduced, 
together   with" 

{h)  "The  recognition  of  all  standard  subjects  as  elective." 

"The  specified  entrance  requirements  of  two  foreign  languages, 
the  meager  electives  in  science,  and  the  absence  of  recognition 
for  drawing,  music,  household  sciences  and  art,  shopwork,  com- 
mercial branches,  and  civics  and  economics,  constitute  the  chief 
difficulty." 


^"School  Science  and  Mathematics,"  1911,  Vol.  11,  pp.  371-373. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       45 

A  number  of  important  state  and  sectional  organizations  have 
declared,  as  one  of  their  aims,  the  promotion  of  a  better  under- 
standing between  secondary  schools  and  colleges.  But  notwith- 
standing the  efforts  of  these  organizations,  there  is  still  consid- 
erable dissatisfaction  among  high  schools  with  the  present  en- 
trance requirements  and  methods  of  admission.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  the  work  of  the  colleges  and  the  high  schools  may  be 
more  perfectly  harmonized  in  the  near  future. 


CHAPTER  III 

Effect  of  the  Introduction  of  Manual  Training  upon^ 
American  Education 

In  a  discussion  of  the  merits  of  manual  training,  as  in  many- 
other  new  projects,  its  advocates  have  many  times  made  ex- 
travagant claims  for  it,  and  its  opponents  have  made  many 
equally  bitter  attacks  upon  it.  A  number  of  opinions  might  be 
given  on  both  sides  of  the  question,  but  one  of  each  will  be  suf- 
ficient to  make  this  point  clear.  The  following  is  taken  from 
an  article  by  Mr.  W.  N.  Hailman: 

"Manual  training  is  proving  its  value  as  an  efificient  educa- 
tional factor,  not  only  in  the  development  of  manual  skill,  but 
also  in  the  enrichment  and  invigoration  of  the  intellect,  in  the 
direction  and  strengthening  of  the  will,  in  the  establishment  of 
the  healthy  moral  attitude,  and  in  the  nature  of  public  spirit."*^ 
Again,  "Whatever  course  in  the  high  school  the  child  may  enter 
(presumably  manual  training  in  the  grades  is  referred  to  here) 
he  will  carry  there  with  him  the  habits  of  patient  research,  of 
rational  thinking,  of  solid  judgment,  of  creative  fervor,  of  mobile 
skill,  and  calm  self-reliance — in  short,  of  all-sided  efficiency, 
which  no  other  training  can  give  him.  And  by  these  alone  can 
he  climb  to  mastership  in  life."" 

Were  these  claims  true,  practically  all  our  educational  prob- 
lems would  eventually  disappear.  But  they  appear  to  be  with- 
out foundation  in  many  instances  and  are  based  on  no  statistics 
or  observations.  That  such  results  are  desirable  is  undeniable, 
but  the  mere  fact  that  manual  training  may  produce  such 
results  does  not  warrant  anyone  in  making  the  statement  that 
it  does.     Even  if  it  be  granted  that  the  child  acquires  all  these 


**W.   N.   Hailman,   "Educational  Aspects  of  Manual  Training,"  in  the 
"Pedogogic  Quarterly,"  Oct.,  1899,  Vol.  I,  No.  4,  p.  i,  E.  L.  Kellog  Co. 
*Ubid.,  p.  18. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       47 

characteristics,  there  are  so  many  other  influences  to  be  con- 
sidered that  it  is  not  safe  to  assume  that  they  are  benefits  de- 
rived only  from  manual  training.  On  the  other  hand,  when 
the  movement  for  manual  training  schools  was  first  being  in- 
augurated in  the  United  States,  Dr.  Wm.  T.  Harris,  who  was 
one  of  the  leading  educators  of  the  day,  as  chairman  of  a  com- 
mittee on  Pedagogics,  strongly  opposed  it,  and  in  the  course  of 
a  report  in  1889,  to  the  National  Council  of  Education,  stated 
that  the  argument  that  manual  training  cultivates  the  powers 
of  attention,  perseverance,  and  industry,  is  misleading,  because 
they  are  formal  powers  and  not  substantial.  They  derive  their 
value  from  what  they  are  applied  to,  and  they  may  be  mis- 
chievous as  well  as  beneficial.*^  Dr.  Harris  did  not  seem  to 
appreciate  the  fact  that  the  same  argument  may  be  turned 
against  any  of  the  recognized  academic  studies.  For  many 
years  it  has  been  contended  that  mathematics,  languages, 
history,  and  other  academic  studies  have  cultivated  these  same 
powers.  Such  being  the  case,  these  subjects  might  produce 
mischievous  as  well  as  beneficial  effects,  and  consequently  have 
the  same  objections  raised  against  them  as  the  committee  raised 
against  manual  training. 

Manual  training  is  no  longer  an  experiment.  It  has  been  in 
use  in  this  country  for  over  twenty-five  years  and  is  now  so 
widely  diffused  that  it  has  become  an  integral  part  of  the  public 
school  curriculum.  It  has  been  given  sufficient  time  to  demon- 
strate its  usefulness  and  its  adaptation  to  present  day  condi- 
tions. 

When  the  movement  was  still  in  its  infancy,  Dr.  CM.  Wood- 
ward,^^  of  the  St.  Louis  Manual  Training  School,  suggested 
several  results  which  might  be  expected  to  follow  the  introduc- 
tion of  manual  training.  These  results  are  submitted  for  two 
reasons.     First,  because  they  include  most  of  the  results  usually 


*'  "The  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training,"  Report  of  the  Committee 
on  Pedagogics,  National  Council  of  Education,  July,  1889.  In  Appendix  of 
Woodward,  "The  Educational  Value  of  Manual  Training,"  D.  C.  Heath  & 
Co.,   1890. 

**  These  18  results  are  quoted  from  C.  M.  Woodward,  "The  Manual  Train- 
ing School,"  Chapter  VIII,  pp.  212-213. 


48        Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

given  by  advocates  of  manual  training;  second,  because  they 
were  suggested  twenty-five  years  ago,  so  that,  after  an  experience 
of  that  length  of  time,  it  can  be  determined,  to  a  large  extent, 
whether  the  prophecies  made  have  come  true. 

"The  value  of  manual  training,  when  properly  combined 
with  literary,  scientific,  and  mathematical  studies,  will  be  shown 
in  the  following  ways: 

"  I.  Science  and  mathematics  will  profit  from  a  better  under- 
standing of  forms,  materials,  and  processes,  and  from  the  readi- 
ness with  which  their  principles  may  be  illustrated. 

"2.  Without  shopwork,  drawing  loses  half  its  value. 

"3.  Correct  notions  of  things,  relations,  and  forces,  derived 
from  actual  handling  and  doing,  go  far  toward  a  just  compre- 
hension of  language  in  general;  that  is,  manual  training  cul- 
tivates the  mechanical  and  scientific  imagination,  and  enables 
one  to  see  the  force  of  metaphors  in  which  physical  terms  are 
employed  to  express  metaphysical  truths." 

A. — Numbers  1,2,  and  3  would  probably  hold  true  if  mathe- 
matics, science,  drawing,  and  language  work  were  closely  cor- 
related. Unfortunately,  this  is  not  always  the  case.  The 
progress  in  this  direction  one  would  expect  after  a  period  cover- 
ing twenty-five  years  has  not  been  made.  There  have  been  a 
few  books  on  practical  mathematics  published,  and  the  new 
books  are  devoting  more  and  more  space  to  practical  problems, 
so  that  we  may  hope  for  more  definite  results  in  the  near  future. 
In  order  to  make  mechanical  drawing  effective  it  is  absolutely 
essential  that  it  be  correlated  with  the  manual  training,  yet 
frequently  we  find  them  divorced  entirely.  Whenever  possible, 
working  drawings  of  the  objects  to  be  made  should  first  be  re- 
quired. If  the  teachers  of  the  manual  training  and  the  teachers 
of  other  subjects  would  confer  and  map  out  a  course  whereby 
each  subject  would  be  taught  so  as  to  bring  out  its  relation  to 
the  other  branches,  better  results  might  be  obtained. 

"4.  Manual  training  will  stimulate  a  love  for  simplicity  of 
statement  and  a  disposition  to  reject  fine  sounding  words  whose 
meaning  is  obscure." 

B. — Number  4  is  of  no  significance  whatever.  Just  as  a  boy 
at  one  period  of  his  life  has  an  inclination  to  jump  from  high 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       49 

places,  at  another  period  to  display  his  physical  prowess,  so  at 
a  third  period  he  has  a  desire  to  use  large  and  fine  sounding 
words.  Difference  in  training  would  hardly  affect  him,  and 
even  if  it  did  the  advantage  gained  would  be  of  small  moment. 

"5.  It  will  awaken  a  lively  interest  in  school,  and  invest 
dull  subjects  with  new  life." 

C. — Number  5  may  or  may  not  be  true.  There  is  testimony 
to  support  this  claim,  but  my  own  experience  has  been  that  it 
does  not  invest  dull  subjects  with  new  life  to  any  great  extent. 
Testimony  of  others  with  whom  I  have  conferred  agrees  with 
my  own  conclusion.  Mr.  C.  T.  Lane,  Principal  of  the  High- 
land Manual  Training  School,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  states: 

"Our  experience  points  straight  to  the  conclusion  that  boys, 
if  left  to  themselves,  will  tend  to  neglect  their  academic  studies 
in  favor  of  their  shop  work,  and  this  conclusion  of  experience 
is  confirmed  by  correspondence  with  principals  of  other  schools."*' 

"6.  It  will  keep  boys  and  girls  out  of  mischief,  both  in  and  out 
of  school." 

D. — Number  6  offers  no  reason  either  for  the  introduction 
or  the  maintenance  of  manual  training.  Cases  of  discipline 
can  be  handled  with  much  less  expense  and  in  much  less  time 
than  the  time  devoted  to  teaching  manual  training.  At  the 
same  time,  it  must  be  admitted  that  manual  work  has  im- 
proved the  discipline  in  particular  schools. 

"7.  It  will  keep  boys  longer  at  school." 

E. — Number  7  will  be  discussed  later. 

"8.  It  will  give  boys  with  strong  mechanical  aptitudes  and 
fondness  for  objective  study  an  equal  chance  with  those  of 
good  memories  for  languages." 

F. — Number  8  is  no  doubt  true,  for  the  innate  tendencies  of 
all  individuals  are  not  the  same.  At  least  it  should  make  the 
school  work  much  more  interesting  for  those  who  have  strong 
"mechanical  aptitudes." 

"9.  It  will  materially  aid  in  the  selection  of  occupation  when 
school  life  is  over." 

G. — Number  9  involves  a  question  that  it  is  extremely  dif- 
ficult to  answer.     That  it  is  true  in  individual  cases  is  almost  a 


*"  Report  of  Public  Schools,"  1907,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  p.  58. 


50        Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 


certainty,  but  whether  it  occurs  in  a  sufficient  number  of  cases 
to  warrant  its  being  called  a  result  is  another  matter.  Even 
though  statistics  were  available  on  the  matter  there  would  be 
no  surety  that  it  was  not  some  other  factor  that  influenced  the 
selection  of  occupation.  In  many  cases,  particularly  in  in- 
dustrial districts,  the  boy  would  probably  enter  into  industrial 
work  whether  he  had  received  manual  training  or  not,  so  that 
the  selection  could  not  be  ascribed  to  his  training.  Further- 
more, it  is  quite  possible  that  the  manual  training  may  be  in- 
strumental in  leading  many  boys  to  take  up  mechanical  work 
who  might  otherwise  have  followed  some  profession  and  thus 
placed  themselves  in  more  enviable  positions.  The  tendency 
among  boys  is,  too  frequently,  to  follow  the  line  of  least  resist- 
ance. 

The  Alumni  Association  of  the  Northeast  Manual  Training 
School  of  Philadelphia  has  compiled  statistics  relating  to  the 
occupations  of  the  graduates  of  the  school.  This  school  has 
just  completed  its  twentieth  year. 


Accountants 19 

Actor I 

Actuaries 2 

Advertisers 18 

Architects 31 

Artists 12 

Assayers 2 

Attorneys  at  Law 37 

Agents  (Railroad) 6 

Agent  (Immigrant) i 

Bakers 3 

Banker i 

Baseball  (Professional) 3 

Blacksmiths 2 

Bookkeepers 67 

Builders 10 

Buyers 10 

Bricklayers 

Brewers 

Brokers 

Carpenters 

Cashiers 

Caterer 


2 
2 

8 

3 

10 

I 


Captain  (marine) I 

Chemists 32 

Clergymen 7 

Clerks  (general) 109 

Clerks  (chief) 10 

Clerks  (bank) 44 

Clerks  (railroad) 60 

Clerks  (postoffice) 9 

Collectors 6 

Consul I 

Contractors 16 

Dairymen 2 

Decorators 6 

Dentists 16 

Designers 24 

Draughtsmen  (architect) 22 

Draughtsmen  (chief) 12 

Draughtsmen  (mechanical)  ....  229 

Draughtsmen  (marine) 12 

Druggists 15 

Dyers 3 

Estimators 10 

Electricians 61 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       51 


Editors 5 

Engineers  (civil) 93 

Engineers  (consulting) 14 

Engineers  (chemical) 7 

Engineers  (electrical) 49 

Engineer  (marine) i 

Engineers  (mechanical) 62 

Engineers  (mining) 9 

Engineers  (railroad) 6 

Engineers  (structural) 5 

Engravers 2 

Examiner i 

Experts 6 

Farmers 9 

Firemen 2 

Florists 5 

Foresters 2 

Foremen 15 

Grocers 5 

Instrument  Makers 10 

Inspectors  (medical) 4 

Inspectors  (miscellaneous) 30 

Insurance  Agents 21 

Jewelers 4 

Laundrymen 4 

Lumber  Dealers 7 

Machinists 33 

Manufacturers 44 

Medmnicians .: 3 

Merchants 64 

Miller i 

Musicians 8 

Managers 74 

Missionaries 2 

Newspaper  Editors 2 

Newspaper  Reporters 6 

Orchardist I 

Officers  (army) 3 

Opticians 5 


Osteopaths 6 

Pattern  Makers 11 

Photographers 5 

Physicians 60 

Plumbers 15 

Printers 22 

Principals 4 

Private  Secretaries 2 

Purchasing  Agents 5 

Presidents 19 

Publishers 3 

Railroad  Supervisors 6 

Real  Estate  Brokers 52 

Ranchmen 2 

Stenographers 13 

Superintendents 56 

Salesmen 124 

Salesmen  (traveling) 44 

Surveyors 42 

Secretaries 23 

Sales  Managers 15 

Treasurers 15 

Transitmen 6 

Tellers 10 

Truant  Officer i 

Tailors 2 

Teachers  (college) 21 

Teachers  (high  school) 31 

Teachers  (elementary  school) . .  21 

Teachers  (private  school) 6 

Teamsters 2 

Undertakers 3 

Veterinary  Surgeons 9 

Vice  Presidents 7 

Writers 2 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Secretaries 2 

Y.  M.  C.  A.  Physical  Directors  2 
In  Higher  Institutions  of  Learn- 
ing    308 


"10.  It  will  enable  an  employer  of  labor  to  better  estimate 
the  comparative  value  of  skilled  and  unskilled  labor  and  to 
exercise  a  higher  consideration  for  the  laboring  man." 

H. — It  is  quite  probable  that  Number  10  is  true.  The  as- 
sumption is  that  the  comparison  is  made  between  two  boys 


52        Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

of  the  same  ability — one  of  whom  has  had  manual  training  and 
the  other  has  not  had  any  such  training.  If  they  be  given  par- 
allel positions  where  a  knowledge  of  manual  work  could  be  used 
to  advantage,  a  comparison  between  the  skilled  and  the  un- 
skilled could  be  made — to  the  credit  of  the  former  without 
doubt.  Dr.  Woodward  endeavored  to  secure  facts  relative  to 
this  point  and  quotes  several  letters  from  employers  which  sup- 
port this  suggestion. 

"ii.  It  will  raise  the  standards  of  attainments  in  mechanical 
occupations,  and  invest  them  with  new  dignity  and  worth. 

"i2.  It  will  increase  the  bread-winning  and  home-making 
power  of  the  average  boy,  who  has  his  bread  to  win  and  his  home 
to  make." 

I. — Numbers  ii  and  12  are  simply  assumptions  that  will 
have  to  stand  as  such.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  are  true. 
In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  some  time  ago 
Dr.  Talcott  Williams  took  the  table  of  occupations  in  the  United 
States  Census  of  1900,  analyzed  it,  and  pointed  out  that  out  of 
30,000,000  engaged  in  these  occupations,  only  about  4,000,000, 
or  about  one  in  seven,  are  persons  who  would  be  directly  bene- 
fited in  wage  earning  by  manual  training  or  other  mechanical 
work  of  the  sort  which  is  taught  in  the  schools. 

"13.  It  will  stimulate  invention.  The  age  of  invention  is 
yet  to  come  and  manual  training  is  the  very  breath  of  its  nos- 
trils." 

/. — ^Whether  manual  training  has  stimulated  invention  or 
not  is  another  question  which  cannot  be  definitely  answered. 
The  whole  number  of  patents,  including  designs,  issued  up  to 
1890,  when  manual  training  really  obtained  a  good  start,  was 
about  400,000;  up  to  January  ist,  1901,  about  700,000  had  been 
issued,  and  during  the  past  year  the  number  reached  the  one 
million  mark.  How  many  of  these  patents  have  been  taken 
out  by  individuals  who  have  had  manual  training,  and  how  much 
influence  this  training  may  have  had  in  furnishing  the  new 
idea,  it  is  impossible  to  say.  It  would  be  interesting  to  have 
statistics  on  this  point.  But  it  is  certainly  reasonable  to  sup- 
pose that  when  a  large  number  of  individuals  have  become 
familiar  with  tools,  by  the  aid  of  manual  training,  and  who 
otherwise  would  have  little  use  for  them,  the  field  of  invention 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       53 

is  likely  to  profit.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  in 
this  field  machines  have  multiplied  more  rapidly  in  the  last 
generation  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  history  of  mankind.  Would 
the  new  industrial  conditions  alone  account  for  this? 

"14.  We  shall  enjoy  the  extraordinary  advantage  of  having 
lawyers,  journalists,  and  politicians  with  more  correct  views  of 
social  and  national  conditions  and  problems. 

"  15.  It  will  help  to  prevent  the  growth  of  a  feeling  of  con- 
tempt for  manual  occupation  and  for  those  who  live  by  manual 
labor. 

"16.  It  will,  to  a  certain  extent,  readjust  social  standards 
in  the  interests  of  true  manliness  and  intrinsic  worth." 

K. — Numbers  14,  15,  and  16  scarcely  require  comment. 
They  express  highly  desirable  results,  in  the  attainment  of 
which  manual  training  probably  has  its  share. 

"17. — It  will  accelerate  the  progress  of  civilization  by  greatly 
diminishing  the  criminal  and  pauper  classes,  which  are  largely 
made  up  of  those  who  are  neither  willing  nor  able  to  earn  an 
honest  living." 

L. — ^There  is  considerable  evidence  to  support  Number  17. 
J.  M.  Gillette,  in  his  "Vocational  Education,"  cites  facts  given 
by  Professor  Richard  T.  Ely,  Dr.  R.  P.  Faulkner,  Booker  T. 
Washington,  Frederick  Wines,  and  others,  which  indicate  that 
lack  of  ability  and  skill,  which  special  training  would  give, 
largely  accounts  for  the  existence  of  adult  criminals  and  pau- 
pers.*" In  the  same  chapter  he  gives  figures  which  show  that 
over  80%  of  the  paroled  convicts  of  Elmira,  New  York,  where 
trades  are  taught  and  academic  instruction  is  maintained,  have 
been  reformed. 

"The  corner  stone  of  the  reformative  system  is  industrial 
training.  *  *  *  *  Xo  effect  a  rounded  development,  intellectual 
and  moral  education  is  an  essential  accompaniment  of  industrial 
training,  and  schools  of  trade  must  be  supplemented  by  schools 
of  letters."" 

Although  these  statements  bear  more  directly  upon  industrial 
education  than  manual  training,  it  is  but  a  step  from  one  to  the 

"John    M.    Gillette,    "Vocational   Training,"    Chapter   VII. 
"Eugene  Smith,  "American  Journal  of  Sociology,"  Vol.  XI,  pp.  94-95 
(from  Gillette,  p.  159.) 


54       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

other,  so  that  they  apply  with  almost  as  great  force  to  manual 
training. 

Dr.  C.  R.  Henderson  gives  us  further  evidence.  He  states: 
"It  is  almost  certain  that  the  custom  of  confining  growing  boys 
to  the  mere  conning  of  book  lessons  frequently  irritates  and 
maddens  them,  excites  disgust  for  studies  which  seem  to  have 
no  relation  with  their  lives  and  give  their  muscles  nothing  to 
do.  One  thing  shines  out  clearly  from  the  records  thus  far 
studied;  that  the  lack  of  instruction  in  manual  and  trade  pro- 
cesses and  of  personal  moral  and  spiritual  influences,  must  be 
charged  with  much  of  the  tendency  to  crime." 

"The  manual  training  school  is  suitable  for  industrial  and 
reform  schools,  and  for  intermediate  prisons  or  reformatories 
for  young  men."*^  If  it  be  suitable  for  reform  schools,  it  should 
be  equally  suitable,  as  a  preventive  measure,  for  many  boys 
who  might  be  drifting  toward  such  schools. 

A  large  majority  of  criminals  have  no  trade  and  are  little 
better  off  from  a  scholastic  standpoint.  It  has  been  found  by 
experience  that  it  is  better  to  teach  them  a  trade  by  means  of 
which  they  can  readily  earn  a  living  when  discharged,  rather 
than  to  attempt  to  teach  them  academic  subjects,  except  in 
relation  to  the  trade. 

Such  testimony  on  the  value  of  manual  training  in  respect  to 
these  points  seems  to  be  conclusive. 

"  i8.  It  will  show  itself  in  a  hundred  ways  in  the  future  homes 
of  our  present  pupils;  on  the  one  hand,  in  the  convenience  and 
economy  of  useful  appliances;  on  the  other,  in  the  evidences  of 
good  taste  in  matters  of  grace  and  beauty." 

M. — Number  i8  is  also  a  result  which  is  certainly  traceable 
to  manual  training.  Any  one  who  has  "kept  house"  will  testify 
to  the  numerous  ways  in  which  a  knowledge  of  manual  training 
may  be  applied.  This  would  presuppose,  however,  practical 
instruction,  not  merely  instruction  in  fancy  work. 

The  argument  Number  7,  that  has  been  very  widely  used  in 
urging  the  instruction  of  manual  training  and  domestic  science 
has  been  that,  because  of  the  interest  aroused,  a  greater  number 
of  boys  and  girls  would  be  attracted  to  school.     Closely  allied 

''^  R.  C.  Henderson,  "Defectives,  Dependents  and  Delinquents,"  p.  250. 
^Ibid.,  p.  286. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       55 

to  it  is  the  contention  that  the  two  courses  would  be  instrumental 
in  decreasing  the  number  of  boys  and  girls  below  grade.  The 
two  questions  are  of  the  greatest  importance,  because  it  is  a 
well  known  fact  that  two  of  the  weakest  links  in  the  educational 
system  of  this  country  are  the  relatively  low  percentage  of 
children  who  remain  in  school  till  their  eighteenth  year  and  the 
large  percentage  of  children  below  grade. 

In  order  to  get  definite  information  on  these  points,  I  sub- 
mitted a  questionaire  to  eighty  high  schools  (the  schools  were 
selected  from  the  list  published  in  the  U.  S.  Commissioner's 
Report  in  1910,  Vol.  II,  p.  26),  located  in  thirty-eight  states, 
in  which  manual  training  and  domestic  science  are  taught. 
Those  schools  having  the  largest  attendance  were  selected  from 
each  state  in  most  instances.  Replies  were  received  from  fifty- 
seven  schools  representing  thirty-three  states. 

The  questionaire  reads  as  follows: 

A. — Do  you  believe  that  Manual  Training  and  Domestic 
Science  have  been  instrumental  in  keeping  a  larger  percentage 
of  boys  and  girls  in  school?  Have  you  any  statistics,  past  or 
present,  to  support  your  position? 

B. — Do  you  believe  that  Manual  Training  and  Domestic 
Science  have  been  instrumental  in  decreasing  the  number  of 
girls  and  boys  below  grade?  Have  you  any  statistics,  past  or 
present,  to  support  your  position? 

Question  B  was  prompted  for  two  reasons:  (i).  Because  I 
have  seen  the  statement  as  given  in  the  questionaire  more  than 
once,  and  (2)  because  it  is  very  frequently  stated  in  another 
form,  i.  e.,  that  manual  training  and  domestic  science  not  only 
arouse  interest  in  these  subjects,  but  they  also  stimulate  the 
interest  of  the  individual  in  other  subjects,  and,  if  this  be  the 
case,  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  there  should  be  fewer  individuals 
below  grade. 

The  replies  are  tabulated  in  the  accompanying  table. 

The  dashes  ( — )  under  the  heading  "statistics"  indicate 
that,  although  no  definite  statistics  were  given,  statements 
were  made  which  are  of  more  or  less  significance. 

The  crosses  (x)  indicate  that  the  question  was  misinter- 
preted. 

The  abbreviation  (Ind.)  indicates  that  the  answer  given  is 
either  indefinite,  non-committal  or  doubtful. 


56       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

TABLE  I. 


Location 


Students 


Boys    Girls    Total 


Ques.  A. 


Stat. 


Ques.  B. 


30. 
31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 

3S. 
36. 

37. 
38. 

39. 
40. 
41. 

42. 
43. 
44- 
45. 
46. 
47. 
48. 
49. 

SO. 
SI. 

52. 
S3. 
54. 

S5. 
56. 
57. 


Birmingham,  Ala 

Selma,  Ala 

Berkeley,  Cal 

Ontario,  Cal 

Redding,  Cal 

Boulder,  Col 

Hartford,  Conn 

Macon,  Georgia 

Streator,  111 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind 

Indianola,  Iowa 

Waterloo,  Iowa 

Pittsburg,  Kansas 

Sterling,  Kansas 

Lexington,  Kentucky 

Baltimore,  Maryland 

(Sup.  Man.  Training). 

Pocomoke,  Maryland 

Brockton,  Mass 

Brookline,  Mass 

Fitchburg,  Mass 

Lynn,  Mass 

Quincy,  Mass 

Beverly,  Mass 

Ironwood,  Mich 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich 

Stephen,  Minn 

Yazoo  City,  Miss 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

(McKinley  School). 

St.  Louis,  Mo 

(Central  High) 

Billings,  Mont 

Omaha,  Neb 

Berlin,  N.  H 

Nashua,  N.  H 

Newark,  N.J 

(Barringer  High  School) 

Paterson,  N.  J 

Long  Island  City.  N.  Y 

(Bryant  High  School) 

Fargo,  N.  D 

Cleveland,  Ohio 

(Lincoln  High  School) 

Springfield,  Ohio 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla 

Pittsburgh,  Pa 

(Allegheny  H.  S.) 

Lebanon,  Pa 

Reading,  Pa 

Wilkes-Barre,  Pa 

Bridgewater,  S.  D.i 

Memphis,  Tenn 

Dallas,  Texas 

Salt  Lake  City.  Utah 

Richmond,  Va 

(Armstrong  High,  colored) 

Olympia.  Wash 

Seattle,  Wash 

(Broadway  High  School) 

Snohomish,  Wash 

Beloit,  Wis 

Milwaukee,  Wis 

(East  Division  High) 

Oshkosh,  Wis , 

Superior,  Wis 

Menominie,  Wis 


39 
36 
60 
40 

27 
41 

320 

65 

28 
249 
50 
40 
70 

58 

50 

141 

42 

174 

82 

8S 

212 

135 


99 
79 
12 
34 
332 

151 

50 
312 

46 

54 

144 

195 
155 

45 
69 

199 

70 

120 

37 

394 

118 

12 

159 

49 

85 

87 

55 
240 

86 
94 
44 

106 
60 


73 


60 

30 

60 

121 


60 


57 


81 


152 
I  OS 


31S 
174 


75 
106 


13 

3 

III 

90 
271 

87 
200 

95 

100 


118 
40 


39 
109 

60 
100 

57 

lOI 

341 
6S 
88 


224  473 

75  125 

50  90 

103  173 

46  104 

SO  TOO 

335  476 


99 
174 
104 

85 

312 
216 


2SI 
184 

33 

647 

325 

50 

312 

46 

103 
144 

195 
350 

120 
175 

487 

76 

173 

45 
394 
118 

25 
162 
160 
175 
358 

142 
440 

181 
194 
44 

224 
100 


yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

no 

no 

no 

Ind. 

Ind. 

no 

yes 

yes 

Ind. 

yes 

Ind. 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

no 

yes 
Ind. 
yes 
Ind. 
Ind. 

yes 
yes 

yes 
yes 

yes 
yes 
yes 

yes 

yes 
Ind. 


yes 
no 

yes 

yes 

yes 
yes 
yes 

yes 
yes 
yes 


no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 

no 
yes 
no 
no 
no 
no 
no 


no 
no 
no 
no 
yes 
no 
no 
yes 
no 
no 
no 


yes 
no 


no 

Ind. 

yes 

yes 

Ind. 

yes 

yes 

yes 

yes 

no 

no 

no 


no 
Ind. 


yes 
no  ans. 

Ind. 
no  ans. 

Ind. 

yes 

yes 

X 

yes 
Ind. 


no 

yei 

Ind. 

no 

Ind. 

no 

Ind. 
yes 

(Not  submitted) 
no  no 

no  no 


no 
yes 


no 
no 


no 
no 

yes 
no 
no 


Ind. 

no 

no  ans. 
no  ans. 

Ind. 
Ind. 


yes 
yes 


'  Work  not  introduced  as  yet,  consequently  it  is  not  included  in  the  totals. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       57 

From  Table  I  it  is  seen  that  41  schools  believe  that  manual 
training  and  domestic  science  have  been  instrumental  in  keep- 
ing a  larger  percentage  of  boys  and  girls  in  school,  nine  of  which 
have  statistics;  seven  do  not  believe  so,  two  of  which  furnish 
statistics;  and  eight  are  indefinite  in  their  replies.  There  are 
39  which  have  no  statistics;  11  have  statistics;  i  was  not  sub- 
mitted; and  6  make  statements  which  are  not  classified  under 
statistics.  The  statistics  of  those  schools  which  believe  that 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  have  been  instrumental 
in  keeping  a  large  number  of  boys  and  girls  in  school  are  given 
below : 

21.  Lynn,  Mass.  "In  20  years  the  enrollment  in  the  high 
school  increased  from  130  to  860." 

24.  Ironwood,  Mich.  "In  6  years  the  enrollment  increased 
from  160  to  315." 

32.  Berlin,  N.  H.  "Before  these  courses  were  introduced 
(1905)  60%  of  the  boys  and  20%  of  the  girls  never  came  to  high 
school.  Today  98%  of  those  eligible  to  come  do  so,  and  in 
those  particular  courses  probably  85%  remain  four  years." 

40.  Oklahoma  City,  Okla.  "Manual  Training  was  intro- 
duced in  September,  1904 — enrollment  in  the  high  school  301; 
Domestic  Science  Department  introduced  in  January,  1907 — 
500;  present  enrollment,   1,550." 

42.  Lebanon,  Pa.  "In  four  years  our  high  school  enrollment 
has  increased  from  216  to  320.  It  is  estimated  that  10%  of 
this  increase  is  due  to  the  addition  of  these  departments  in 
1907." 

52.  Snohomish,  Washington.  "The  Snohomish  High  School 
has  increased  from  less  than  100  to  an  enrollment  of  282  in  ten 
years.     The  growth  of  the  town  has  been  inconsiderable." 

57.  Menominie,  Wis.  "Up  to  eight  years  ago,  the  highest 
enrollment  in  the  Menominie  High  School  for  any  year  was 
165  students.  At  that  time  the  manual  training  work  was 
considerably  extended  both  in  the  grades  and  the  high  school.' 
For  the  past  four  years  the  enrollment  has  reached  250  yearly, 
an  increase  of  about  65%.  There  has  been  no  change  in  the 
industrial  conditions  and  practically  none  in  other  conditions 
in  the  city  during  that  time;  the  school  census  shows  perhaps  a 


58       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

dozen  less  children  of  school  age  in  the  city  than  there  were 
eight  years  ago.  At  the  same  time  a  county  training  school 
and  a  county  school  of  agriculture  have  been  opened  in  the 
city  and  both  have  been  well  attended  and  have  probably 
taken  some  students  that  otherwise  would  have  enrolled  in 
the  high  school.  The  only  reason  I  can  give  for  the  increased 
attendance  or  the  fact  that  the  eighty  grade  pupils  stay  and 
enter  high  school  is  the  attraction  of  the  manual  training  work 
given  in  the  grades  and  the  high  school.  I  know  from  personal 
contact  with  patrons  of  the  school  that  things  that  their  chil- 
dren are  now  able  to  get  in  manual  training  in  our  city  schools 
have  kept  many  of  them  in  school  beyond  the  compulsory  age 
of  14." 

Statistics  submitted  by  schools  which  do  not  believe  that 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  have  been  instrumental 
in  keeping  a  larger  percentage  of  boys  and  girls  in  school: 

10.  Fort  Wayne,  Ind.,  and  Kansas  City,  Kan.  "The  validity 
of  the  first  assumption,  that  manual  training  would  attract  to 
the  high  school  many  young  people,  especially  boys,  who  would 
not  otherwise  enter,  can  only  be  determined  by  statistics  which 
are  not  at  hand  except  for  Kansas  City.  There,  in  1898,  a 
well-equipped  Manual  Training  High  School  was  opened  with 
an  enrollment  of  842  students,  and  yet  the  total  enrollment  for 
that  year  of  all  the  other  high  schools  of  the  city  decreased  only 
142.  One  might  jump  to  the  conclusion  that  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Manual  Training  High  School  attracted  700  stu- 
dents who  would  not  otherwise  have  entered.  But  when  it  is 
observed  that  the  total  enrollment  of  all  the  non-manual  train- 
ing schools  was,  at  the  end  of  five  years,  more  than  200  less 
than  it  was  for  the  year  preceding  the  opening  of  the  manual 
training  high  school,  instead  of  being  1,242  greater  as  it  would 
have  been  had  the  average  annual  increase  of  the  non-manual 
training  high  schools  for  the  preceding  five  years  been  main- 
tained, it  becomes  evident  that  the  total  increase  in  the  high 
school  enrollment  of  the  city,  due  to  the  attractive  power  of 
the  manual  training  high  school,  did  not  exceed  230  at  the  end 
of  the  five  years.  The  only  conclusion  justified  by  the  figures 
is  that  the  manual  training  high  school  is  more  popular  than 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       59 

the  others  and  has  probably  increased  the  total  attendance  a 
little  above  what  it  would  otherwise  have  been.  That  some 
550  students  entered  the  high  schools  during  the  opening  of  the 
manual  training  high  school  who  would  not  otherwise  have 
done  so  is  obvious.  The  question  is,  what  became  of  them? 
The  answer  may  perhaps  be  found  in  the  following  facts.  In 
1903,  26%  of  the  boys  enrolled  in  the  manual  training  high 
school  dropped  out  before  the  end  of  the  year  and  19.5%  of 
the  girls.  The  corresponding  figures  for  the  largest  non-manual 
training  high  school  were  18.2%  and  19.2%.  In  1905  the 
number  of  graduates  from  the  latter  school,  with  a  total  enroll- 
ment of  1,453,  was  206,  and  from  the  former,  with  an  enroll- 
ment of  1,683,  was  135.  The  percentage  of  the  enrollment 
graduated  in  the  non-manual  training  school  was  14.2%,  in 
the  manual  training  school  it  was  8%.  The  percentage  of  male 
graduates  upon  male  enrollment  was  11.09  ^^  the  former  and 
7.16  in  the  latter.  As  far  as  the  figures  for  a  single  year  in  a 
single  school  justify  a  conclusion,  it  must  be  that  the  pupils 
in  the  manual  training  school  do  not  "stick"  as  well  as  those 
in  the  non-manual  training  schools.  That  this  fact  is  observ- 
able throughout  the  five  preceding  years.  Superintendent  Green- 
wood distinctly  states.  A  general  investigation  with  a  view 
to  ascertaining  what  the  facts  of  experience  show,  in  regard  to 
the  validity  of  the  assumption  above  stated,  would  be  worth 
while." 

"Our  own  experience  has  been  too  short  to  settle  anything, 
but  the  following  table  and  statements  may  help  towards  a 
conclusion.  Table  II  refers  to  the  high  school.  Table  III 
shows  promotions  from  8-A  grade.  The  negative  sign  ( — ) 
indicates  decrease."" 


**  C.  T.  Lane,  Principal  of  High  and  Manual  Training  School,  Fort  Wayne, 
Indiana,  "Report  of  Public  Schools,"   1907,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  p.  56. 


60       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 


TABLE  II. 


Year 


Boys 

Girls 

Total 

Per  cent. 
Boys 

Percent. 
Girls 

Inc. 
Boys 

Inc. 
Girls 

146 

267 

413 

35-4 

64.6 

15 

34 

151 

246 

397 

38.0 

62.0 

5 

—21 

156 

217 

373 

41.8 

58.2 

5 

—29 

144 

244 

388 

37- 1 

62.9 

—  12 

27 

173 

247 

420 

41.2 

58.8 

29 

3 

181 

248 

429 

42.2 

57.8 

8 

I 

206 

274 

480 

42.9 

57-1 

25 

26 

236 

356 

593 

40.0 

60.0 

30 

82 

275 

273 

648 

42.4 

57.6 

39 

17 

271 

405 

676 

40. 1 

59-9 

—4 

32 

Total 
Inc. 


1898 
1899 
1900 
I901 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 


49 
— 1& 
-24^ 

15 

32 

9 

5i 

1I2 

56 

28 


TABLE  III. 


Year 


Boys 

Girls 

Total 

Percent. 

Percent. 

Inc. 

Inc. 

Boys 

Girls 

Boys 

Girls 

51 

65 

116 

44.0 

56.0 

62 

88 

150 

41-3 

58.7 

II 

34 

41 

84 

125 

32.8 

67.2 

— 21 

—4 

46 

78 

124 

37-1 

62.9 

5 

—6 

67 

103 

170 

39-4 

60.6 

21 

25 

81 

107 

188 

43- 1 

56.9 

14 

4 

95 

129 

224 

42.4 

57-6 

14 

22 

95 

139 

234 

40.6 

59-4 

0 

10 

100 

136 

236 

42.4 

57.6 

5 

—3 

105 

122 

227 

46.2 

53-8 

5 

—14 

Total 
Inc. 


1898 
1899 
1900 
I9OI 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 

1907 


45 

-25 

—I 

46 

18 

36 

10 

2 

—9 


"We  entered  our  new  building  and  introduced  manual  train- 
ing in  the  fall  of  the  school  year  ending  June,  1905.  The  in- 
crease in  the  enrollment  of  that  year  over  the  preceding  year 
was  112,  by  far  the  largest  increase  in  the  history  of  the  school. 
Part  of  this  increase  would  have  followed  the  opening  of  a  hand- 
some and  commodious  new  building,  regardless  of  what  was 
taught  in  it.  It  seems  fair,  however,  to  assume  that  a  part  of 
this  unusual  increase  of  that  year  was  due  to  interest  and  cur- 
iosity concerning  manual  training  work.  It  must  be  observed, 
however,  that  the  increase  in  the  boys  was  only  30,  5  more  than 
the  preceding  year,  while  the  increase  in  the  girls  was  82,  56 
more  than  in  the  preceding  year.     Comparing  the  period  of 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       61 

three  years  preceding  the  introduction  of  manual  training  with 
the  three  years  since,  we  get  the  following  results.  For  the 
period  preceding,  the  total  increase  was  92,  for  the  period  follow- 
ing, the  total  increase  was  196.  The  increase  in  boys  was  62 
for  the  first  period  and  65  for  the  second,  practically  no  differ- 
ence. The  increase  in  girls  was  30  for  the  first  period  and  131 
for  the  second,  a  difference  of  loi.  Another  fact  must  be  con- 
sidered. A  reference  to  Table  III  shows  a  very  remarkable 
increase  in  the  number  of  promotions  from  the  8-A  Grade  dur- 
ing the  period  1901-7,  an  increase  of  103.  This  rapid  growth 
of  promotions  from  the  8-A  Grade  would,  of  course,  in  the  ab- 
sence of  any  other  influence,  have  largely  increased  the  enroll- 
ment of  the  high  school.  The  conclusion  from  all  these  facts 
is  that  the  influence  of  the  new  work  was  felt  more  strongly 
by  girls  than  by  boys,  that  the  amount  of  influence  is  difficult 
to  determine,  but  was  certainly  not  great. 

"As  to  whether  or  not  manual  training  tends  to  keep  boys  in 
school  and  to  inspire  a  keener  interest  in  other  subjects,  our 
experience,  as  far  as  it  has  gone,  supports  the  negative."** 

29.  St.  Louis,  Mo.  (Central  High).  "I  do  not  believe  that 
manual  training  and  domestic  science  have  been  instrumental 
in  keeping  a  larger  percentage  of  boys  and  girls  in  school.  I 
have  statistics  to  support  my  position.  In  this  school  we  give 
eleven  courses.  My  tabulations  last  September  of  the  per- 
centage of  loss  in  each  course  show  that  of  all  pupils  registered 
between  February,  191 1,  and  June,  191 1,  there  failed  to  report 
in  September  for  their  courses: 

Art  Course 20.5%        Four     Year     Commercial 

General  Course 25.5  Course 42.15% 

Scientific  Cour^      9-3  Manual  Training  Course. . .     24.2 

College  Scientific  Course. . .  15.4 

Classical  Course 20.0  Domestic  Science  Course.. ..  29.5 

College  Classical  Course. . .  11.8  Prep.    to    Teachers'    Col. 

Two      Year      Commercial  Course 8.4 

Course 41.5 


"  C.  T.  Lane,  Principal  High  and  Manual  Training  School,  Fort  Wayne, 
Indiana,  "Report  of  Public  Schools,"  1907,  Fort  Wayne,  Indiana,  p.  57. 


62       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

"These  figures  include  losses  of  pupils  through  the  entire 
range  of  the  eight  semesters  of  the  courses. 

"You  will  notice  that  the  courses  that  prepare  for  business, 
the  four  year  and  the  two  year  commercial,  suffer  the  greatest 
losses.  Those  in  which  pupils  have  a  more  distant  objective, 
such  as  becoming  teachers,  and  following  professions,  as  in  the 
scientific  and  college  scientific  courses,  remain  in  school,  and  the 
percentage  of  loss  in  these  is  relatively  smaller.  The  manual 
training  and  domestic  science  pupils  represent  the  average  loss. 

"It  is  my  opinion  that  the  manual  training  and  domestic 
science  courses  have  brought  a  much  larger  number  of  pupils 
into  the  school,  about  one  third  of  whom  drop  out  during  the 
first  year.  In  fact,  from  February  to  September,  191 1,  60.4% 
of  my  entire  school  belonged  to  the  first  two  semesters  or  first 
year.  It  may  be  interesting  for  you  to  know  that  between 
February,  191 1,  and  September,  191 1,  37-8%  of  the  manual 
training  boys  dropped  out  of  school  and  in  the  second  semester, 
12.8%.  Of  the  domestic  science  pupils,  45.8%  dropped  out 
during  the  first  term  and  26.7%  during  the  second. 

"Moreover,  in  January,  1908,  411  pupils  entered  this  school, 
of  whom  thirty-four  began  manual  training  and  thirty-six 
domestic  science.  We  are  now  graduating  seven  boys  and  two 
girls  from  these  two  courses." 

Statements  made  which  are  not  of  sufficient  significance  to 
be  very  well  classified  under  statistics: 

8.  Macon,  Ga.  "The  upper  classes  have  increased  in 
size  faster  than  first  year  classes,  about  10%. " 

16.  Baltimore,  Md.  "According  to  reports  of  principals 
supervising  schools  before  and  after  manual  training  was  intro- 
duced, such  training  has  a  marked  effect  upon  increasing  the 
attendance." 

41.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Allegheny  High  School. — "Before  we 
introduced  this  new  department  of  our  high  school  course, 
our  enrollment  was  about  600;  now  it  is  800  and  about  200 
students  are  in  the  manual  training  and  domestic  science  work." 

43.  Reading,  Pa.  "Since  the  introduction  of  manual  train- 
ing in  our  school  the  enrollment  has  steadily  gone  up,  until 
today  the  enrollment  of  the  boys  outnumbers  the  girls." 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       63 

47.  Dallas,  Texas.  "Our  graduating  classes  for  the  past 
ten  or  twelve  years  hold  a  fairly  constant  relation  in  numbers 
to  the  total  enrollment." 

49.  Richmond,  Va.,  Armstrong  High  School  (colored).  "We 
introduced  manual  training  in  this  school  in  1905,  giving  each 
boy  and  girl  a  half  day  each  week  in  Domestic  Science  (girls) 
and  Woodwork  (boys).  The  school  fell  off  in  number  that 
year  and  has  never  been  as  large  since. 

"However,  the  next  year,  1906,  I  changed  the  arrangement 
of  studies  and  made  a  four  year  course  instead  of  a  three  year 
course.  This  may  have  something  to  do  with  the  decrease  in 
the  attendance. 

"Last  September  I  introduced  the  industrial  feature  of  the 
Manual  Arts.  We  require  all  pupils  who  fail  in  the  first  year  in 
the  academic  department  to  enter  the  industrial  work.  This 
is  at  present  planned  to  give  work  in  cooking  and  sewing,  leading 
to  proficiency  in  these  arts.  It  is  also  proposed  to  give  the 
boys  an  opportunity  to  learn  some  trade  under  shop  condi- 
tions (part  time  plan).  Our  plan  is  to  give  a  half  day  in  aca- 
demic and  manual  work  daily. 

"This  year  the  school  has  fallen  off  very  considerably  in 
number  again,  the  total  roll  being  60  less  than  last  session.  But 
again  the  falling  off  may  be  partly  due  to  the  opening  of  a  school 
within  two  blocks  of  the  building,  charging  a  nominal  tuition. 

"I  should,  therefore,  say  that  manual  training  has  had  no 
appreciable  effect  in  either  of  the  two  phases  mentioned." 

The  replies  of  those  schools  designated  as  indefinite  or  non- 
committal are  given  below: 

13.  Pittsburg,  Kansas.  "Very  little  and  that  due  to  the 
elasticity  of  the  course  of  study." 

14.  Sterling,  Kansas.  "The  work  is  practically  new  here; 
the  boys  and  girls  take  a  good  interest  in  the  work." 

18.  Brockton,  Mass.  "I  do  not  think  that  it  would  have  a 
tremendous  influence,  although  some  may  have  been  kept  in 
school  on  account  of  such  courses." 

20.  Fitchburg,  Mass.  "It  has  made  very  little  difference 
here." 

31.  Omaha,  Neb.  "We  have  apparently  only  the  natural 
increase  each  vear." 


64       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

33.  Nashua,  N.  H.  "The  work  has  been  in  operation  only 
a  short  time,  so  no  opinion  can  be  given." 

34.  Newark,  N.  J.     "Evidence  not  strong." 

44.  Wilkes-Barre,  Pa.  "Records  rather  support  the  ques- 
tion." 

With  these  reports  the  increase  throughout  the  United  States 
in  the  enrollment  of  persons  5  to  18  years  of  age  during  recent 
years  should  be  considered.  According  to  the  United  States 
Commissioner's  Report  of  1910,  there  are  nearly  1,400  cities 
in  the  United  States  having  4,000  population  or  over.  In 
more  than  half  of  these  cities  the  public  schools  have  manual 
training  in  several  years  of  the  course,  generally  in  the  elemen- 
tary grades,  but  frequently  in  all  the  years  from  the  kinder- 
garten through  the  high  school."  In  addition  to  these  there 
are  also  265  manual  and  industrial  schools,  exclusive  of  the 
Indian  Schools,  of  which  74  are  public.** 


TABLE  IV. 
(i) — Cities  of  over  4,000  inhabitants  offering  Manual  Training. 


i869-'70 

'79-'8o 

'90 

'94 

•96 

•98 

1900 

'01 

'02 

'03 

'04 

'05 

•06 

'07 

•08 

•09 

37 

95 

121 

146 

169 

232 

270 

322 

411 

420 

510 

644 

671 

OVf 

70. 

57 


(2) — Percentage  of  persons  5  to  18  years  of  age  enrolled  in  public  schools. 


655 


68.61 


72.43 


c 
71.67 


c 

70.35 


c 

70.43 


c 
69.61 


c 

69.32 


The  first  table  was  taken  from  the  U.  S.  Commissioner's 
Report  1909,  Vol.  II,  p.  1161  and  Report  of  191 1. 

The  second  table  was  taken  from  the  U.  S.  Commissioner's 
Report  1910,  Introductory  Survey,  p.  xiv  and  Report  of  191 1. 

"  United  States  Commissioner's  Report  1910,  Vol.  II,  Chapter  26,  p.   1205. 
"  United  States  Commissioner's  Report  1910,  Vol.  II,  Table  168. 


Deuelopment  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       65 

The  sign  (c)  over  numerals  in  Table  2  indicates  that  they  are 
based  on  a  comparison  between  actual  numbers  of  pupils  5 
to  18  years  of  age  enrolled  (duplicates  excluded)  and  estimated 
number  of  persons  5  to  18  years  of  age. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  increase  in  the  number  of  schools 
which  teach  manual  training  and  notwithstanding  the  general 
impression  among  school  principals  that  manual  training  and 
domestic  science  have  been  instrumental  in  keeping  a  larger 
percentage  of  boys  and  girls  in  school,  it  is  observed  that  in 
1890,  when  there  were  but  37  schools  recorded  as  teaching 
manual  training,  the  per  cent,  of  persons  enrolled  from  5  to 
18  years  of  age  was  68.61,  and  that  in  1907,  when  there  were  644 
schools  recorded  as  teaching  manual  training,  the  percentage 
of  persons  enrolled  from  5  to  18  years  of  age  was  69.61 ;  an  in- 
crease of  I  per  cent.  Again,  comparing  the  years  1900,  when 
there  were  169  schools  recorded  as  teaching  manual  training, 
and  1908,  when  there  were  671  such  schools,  there  was  an 
actual  decrease  of  3. 11  per  cent,  of  persons  5  to  18  years  of  age 
enrolled. 

Of  course,  as  a  check  upon  these  figures,  it  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the  percentage  of  persons  5  to  18  years  of  age  enrolled  is 
estimated  in  several  instances,  so  that  they  may  not  be  accur- 
ate, but  we  have  no  more  reliable  statistics  upon  which  to 
depend. 

Before  formulating  any  conclusion,  I  wish  to  call  particular 
attention  to  the  large  number  of  instances  where  a  general  im- 
pression is  given,  one  way  or  the  other,  without  any  statistics 
to  support  the  impression. 

And  even  when  statistics  are  given,  with  the  exception  of 
three  or  four  cities,  no  reference  is  made  as  to  whether  the 
change  in  enrollment  is  due  to  a  change  in  local  conditions,  or 
whether  the  change  is  simply  a  normal  one,  or  whether  it  may 
be  due  to  some  other  influence.  It  is  my  belief  that,  when  a 
change  is  made  in  the  curriculum  of  a  school  of  such  vast  im- 
portance as  is  the  introduction  of  manual  training,  and  even 
when  changes  of  less  importance  are  made,  statistics  should  be 
kept  in  order  to  determine  whether  or  not  the  change  affects 
the  enrollment.  If  this  were  done  we  could  have  more  facts 
and  less  impressions  upon  which  to  depend. 


66       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

It  is  obvious  from  the  facts  related  that,  although  in  certain 
communities  manual  training  and  domestic  science  have  been 
instrumental  in  keeping  a  larger  percentage  of  boys  and  girls  in 
school,  throughout  the  country  their  introduction  has  made 
practically  no  difference  in  the  per  cent,  of  enrollment. 

According  to  Table  I  there  are  sixteen  schools  in  which  it 
is  believed  that  Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science  have 
been  instrumental  in  decreasing  the  number  of  boys  and  girls 
below  grade,  one  of  which  has  statistics  which  were  not  sub- 
mitted; eighteen  did  not  believe  so,  one  of  which  furnished 
statistics;  twelve  were  indefinite  in  their  replies;  four  misinter- 
preted the  question ;  and  six  did  not  answer.  There  were  forty- 
four  which  have  no  statistics;  two  have  statistics,  one  of  which 
was  not  submitted;  four  misinterpreted  the  question;  and  six 
did  not  reply. 

Only  one  school  submitted  statistics  on  this  question  and 
they  referred  to  one  year's  work. 

29.  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Central  High  School.  "I  do  not  believe 
that  the  Manual  and  Domestic  Science  courses  have  decreased 
the  number  of  girls  and  boys  below  grade.  I  have  statistics 
to  support  my  position. 

"From  February,  1911,  to  June,  1911,  I  had  twelve  hundred 
and  eight  pupils,  of  which  six  hundred  and  twelve  failed  in 
one  or  more  studies,  practically  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  school. 
The  lowest  percentage  of  failure  was  in  the  teachers'  prepara- 
tory course  in  which  thirty-six  per  cent,  of  the  pupils  failed  in 
one  or  more  studies.  The  Manual  Training  Course  represented 
fifty-four  per  cent,  and  the  Domestic  Science  also  fifty-four  per 
cent.,  who  failed  in  one  or  more  studies.  This  undoubtedly 
will  seem  to  you  an  exceptionally  large  percentage  of  failures. 
I  may,  therefore,  indicate  the  percentage  by  semesters: 


Manual  Training  Course 


Domestic  Science  Course 


First      Semester 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 


70% 

First 

70% 

Second         ' ' 

35% 

Third 

32% 

Fourth         '  * 

46% 

Fifth 

55% 

Sixth 

33% 

Seventh        ' ' 

0% 

Eighth          '  • 

52% 

53% 
40% 
55% 
14% 
50% 
25% 
o%> 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       67 

The  principal  of  another  school,  whose  reply  is  classified  under 
the  column  (no)  gives  a  very  interesting  reason  for  his  position 
as  follows:  56.  Superior,  Wis.  "I  believe  they  have  increased 
the  number  below  grade  because  they  have  kept  in  school  a 
large  number  that  would  have  dropped  out.  The  ones  that 
dropped  out  do  so  in  many  cases  because  they  find  school  work 
hard  and  not  to  their  liking.  However,  I  believe  the  courses 
a  good  thing,  for  any  boy  or  girl  that  is  kept  in  those  courses 
is  getting  something  even  though  he  may  not  pass  in  his  other 
work.  I  am  heartily  in  favor  with  the  move  to  make  school 
work  a  preparation  in  every  way  for  their  future  places  in  life." 

Most  of  the  schools  classified  as  indefinite  or  non-committal 
expressed  themselves  as  doubtful  or  made  statements  to  that 
effect.  The  replies  of  a  few  which  are  of  more  significance  are 
given  below. 

2.  Selma,  Ala.  "It  is  the  Superintendent's  opinion  that 
there  are  a  number  of  vastly  more  important  influences  than 
the  subjects  of  study  that  affect  and  determine  the  classifica- 
tion and  promotion  of  pupils." 

16.  Baltimore,  Md.  "Increased  attendance  will  in  time  be 
a  means  of  decreasing  repeaters.  We  have  only  our  regular 
attendance  reports  to  support  this  contention." 

41.  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  Allegheny  High  School.  "Not  a  few 
students  who  formerly  took  the  academic  course  and  failed 
because  they  had  no  abiding  interest  in  the  course  now  take 
the  Manual  Training  or  the  Domestic  Science  and  make  good 
records." 

A  study  has  recently  been  made  of  318  cities  of  varying  size 
from  all  sections  of  the  United  States  with  reference  to  retarda- 
tion. The  conclusions  which  are  given  are  based  on  an  age 
grade  census.  Normal  age  is  defined  as  6  to  8  for  the  first 
grade,  7  to  9  for  the  second,  8  to  10  for  the  third,  etc.  From 
the  statistics  given,  I  have  calculated  that  the  per  cent,  of  the 
total  number  of  boys  below  grade  is  37.26 — of  girls  31.86 — and 
of  the  total  number  of  pupils  34.56.  The  fact  that  there  are 
21  cities  which  show  less  than  15  per  cent,  of  retardation  for 
boys  and  seventeen  cities  that  show  more  than  60  per  cent,  of 


68       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

boys  over  age,  will  give  some  idea  of  the  great  variation  en- 
countered." • 

A  short  time  ago  Superintendent  Lurton,  of  Anoka,  Minn., 
investigated  the  grade  age  status  of  17,279  children  in  the 
grade  below  the  high  school  in  55  villages  and  smaller  cities 
in  Minnesota.  The  towns  are  widely  scattered  in  the  State 
so  as  to  afford  every  variety  of  social  and  industrial  conditions. 
Instead  of  using  the  normal  age  of  6  to  8  for  the  first  grade,  7 
to  9  in  the  second,  as  in  the  investigation  mentioned  above,  he 
uses  the  normal  age  of  6  to  7  for  the  first  grade,  7  to  8  for  the 
second  grade,  etc.,  for  reasons  that  seem  sufficient.  He  finds 
that  the  average  of  all  pupils  considered,  that  are  below  grade, 
is  58.9.  Taking  the  normal  grade  of  6  to  8  for  the  first  grade 
and  so  on,  he  finds  the  percentage  of  children  below  grade  to 
be  30.9.'"' 

The  results  of  these  investigations  have  been  given,  not  so 
much  on  account  of  the  bearing  that  Manual  Training  and 
Domestic  Science  have  upon  them,  but  rather  to  show  the 
seriousness  of  the  problem  under  discussion.  No  attempt  is 
made  to  give  reasons  for  the  results  obtained,  though  several 
might  readily  be  suggested,  as  absences,  change  of  residence, 
poor  nourishment,  physical  defects,  etc. 

If  records  of  retardation  were  kept  before  and  after  the  intro- 
duction of  Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science,  it  seems  to 
me  the  statistics  would  give  definite  information,  for  the  other 
conditions  would  remain  more  or  less  constant.  Of  course  other 
conditions  which  might  influence  the  records  would  have  to  be 
carefully  noted.  The  introduction  of  medical  inspection,  change 
of  teachers,  an  epidemic  of  sickness,  etc.,  might  influence  the 
percentage  of  those  retarded  one  way  or  the  other.  But  definite 
information  must  be  obtained  upon  which  to  base  conclusions, 
so  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  results,  possible 
from  a  change  in  the  curriculum,  should  be  most  carefully 
considered. 


**  United  States  Commissioner's  Report,  1910,  Vol.  II,  Introd.  Survey 
pp.  XXI-XXII. 

'°F.  E.  Lurton,  "Retardation  in  55  Western  Towns."  Journal  of  Educa- 
tion, March  7,  1912,  p.  262. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       69 

Because  of  the  lack  of  statistics  it  is  almost  impossible  to  form 
any  definite  conclusions  on  this  point.  But  from  the  large  per- 
centage of  children  below  grade,  which  continues  to  exist  even 
though  various  methods  have  been  employed  to  increase  the 
interest  of  the  pupils,  it  seems  fair  to  assume  that  Manual  Train- 
ing and  Domestic  Science  have  not  stimulated  the  interest  of  the 
pupils  sufficiently  to  keep  them  from  being  retarded. 

Results  Considered  from  the  Standpoint  of  Psychology 

Mr.  Robert  K.  Row  in  the  "Educational  Meaning  of  Manual 
Arts  and  Industries"  considers  the  manual  arts  from  a  psychologi- 
cal viewpoint.     Some  of  his  conclusions  are  as  follows: 

Impulses. — "Such  fundamental  impulses,  as  the  general  im- 
pulses to  activity,  the  impulse  to  get  sense  stimulations,  the 
impulse  to  play,  to  imitate,  to  construct  or  to  make  things,  to 
experiment,  to  see  what  things  will  do  in  different  conditions, 
the  social  impulse,  the  aesthetic,  the  ownership  impulse,  find 
peculiarly  favorable  and  appropriate  opportunities  for  expression 
in  the  various  forms  of  Manual  Arts  and  Industries  that  may  be 
introduced  into  the  school."" 

Therefore  "the  nature  of  the  young  child  demands  for  his 
best  all  round  development  regular,  systematic,  varied  exper- 
iences in  manual  arts  and  industries."'* 

Sense  Training. — "The  actual  manipulation  of  various  materi- 
als, clay,  sand,  paper,  cardboards,  woods,  metals,  cottons,  wools, 
silks,  materials  that  are  being  worked  over  for  the  sake  of  some 
end  in  which  the  tactile  qualities  must  be  appreciated,  supplies 
all  the  conditions  for  desirable  training  of  the  sense  of  touch. 
Along  with  these  will  go  training  in  visual  perception,  which, 
however,  will  have  special  emphasis  in  those  occupations  in- 
volving colors,  light  and  shade,  details  of  form  and  proportion. 
Another  accompaniment  will  be  the  training  of  the  muscular 
sense  in  judging  weight,  pressure,  and  other  forms  of  force."** 


"  Robert  K.  Row,  "The  Educational  Meaning  of  Manual  Arts  and  Indus- 
tries," p.  206. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  207. 
«*  Ibid.,  p.  69. 


70      Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

Motor  Control. — "Experiments  were  conducted  in  which  a  saw 
handle  involving  the  principle  of  the  hand  dynamometer  was 
used;  also  with  a  penholder  which  involved  the  same  principle. 
From  these  experiments  it  is  concluded  that '  the  simplest  manual 
occupations,  exercised  with  a  fair  degree  of  regularity  and  fre- 
quency under  the  influence  of  interest  and  attention,  tends  to 
develop,  more  or  less  rapidly,  voluntary  motor  control  for  the 
particular  movements  involved."" 

Mr.  Row's  conclusions  seem  to  be  quite  logical.  It  is  a  cer- 
tainty that  the  child  is  full  of  various  impulses.  When  he  has 
difficulty  in  handling  the  abstract,  manual  training  enters  upon 
its  proper  sphere  in  leading  his  impulses  in  the  proper  direction. 
It  is  equally  apparent  that  the  child's  sense  of  touch,  his  visual 
perception,  etc.,  are  developed  by  his  manual  activities.  Of 
course  his  sense  centers  would  be  stimulated  and  developed  even 
though  he  never  had  manual  training,  but  when  these  centers 
are  stimulated  under  competent  instruction,  they  would  assuredly 
be  trained  to  a  greater  degree  of  accuracy.  Furthermore,  the 
habits  of  motor  control  formed  are  of  permanent  value.  When 
one  acquires  a  muscular  habit,  through  education  of  the  reflex 
centers,  it  stays  there.  This  is  a  fact  admitted  by  practically 
all  psychologists. 

But  "with  the  progress  of  the  child  through  the  schools,  manual 
training  as  a  form  of  motor  activity  should  occupy  a  less  and  less 
important  place,  except  for  those  pupils  whose  wills  in  maturity 
are  to  be  manifested  primarily  in  energizing  and  co-ordinating 
muscular  action.  A  boy  who  is  to  be  a  carpenter  should  contrive 
in  all  stages  of  his  educational  course  to  make  manual  training 
of  this  sort  his  most  important  occupation.  But  a  boy  who  is 
to  deal  with  questions  of  jurisprudence  or  medicine  or  education 
will  suffer  arrest  in  his  evolution  if  he  be  kept  too  long  and  con- 
tinuously at  work  with  his  hands.  His  will  must  come  to  habitu- 
ally express  itself  with  ease  and  efficiency  in  a  different  way  from 
that  of  the  carpenter,  *  *  *  *  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that 
manual  training  should  ever  be  entirely  abandoned;  it  means 


•^  Robert  K.  Row,  "The  Educational  Meaning  of  Manual  Arts  and  Indua- 
tries,"  p.  Ii6. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       71 

simply  that  in  the  higher  departments  of  education  it  is  to  receive 
less  and  less  emphasis  except  for  those  whose  life  work  involves 
continued  use  of  the  hand  rather  than  of  head  primarily."*' 

Conclusions 

Of  the  eighteen  benefits  which  Dr.  Woodward  expected  to 
result  from  the  introduction  of  manual  training,  numbers  i,  2, 
and  3  would  probably  be  true,  provided  mathematics,  science, 
drawing,  language  work,  and  manual  training  were  properly 
correlated,  but  this  is,  unfortunately,  not  always  the  case,  even 
after  twenty-five  years'  experience.  Numbers  4,  5,  6,  and  7 
give  negative  results.  No  direct  evidence  can  be  obtained  to 
support  numbers  9,  11,  12,  13,  14,  15,  and  16;  consequently, 
they  must  be  considered  as  highly  desirable  results,  which  cannot 
be  accepted  with  certainty.  Numbers  8,  10,  17,  and  18  may  with 
reasonable  assurance  be  considered  as  benefits  directly  derived 
from  manual  training. 

Manual  Training  and  Domestic  Science  have  not,  to  any 
appreciable  extent,  been  instrumental  in  increasing  the  per- 
centage of  persons  5  to  18  years  of  age  enrolled  in  the  public 
schools  throughout  the  country. 

On  account  of  a  lack  of  statistics  it  is  impossible  to  form  any 
conclusion  as  to  whether  or  not  the  introduction  of  these  two 
courses  has  been  a  factor  in  decreasing  the  number  of  boys  and 
girls  below  grade.  Sufficient  evidence  has  been  obtained,  how- 
ever, to  warrant  the  statement  that  they  have  not  been  instru- 
mental in  stimulating  the  interest  in  other  subjects  sufficiently 
to  keep  the  pupil  from  being  retarded,  except  in  individual  cases. 

The  elementary  but  systematic  training  which  a  boy  receives 
by  completing  a  thorough  course  in  manual  training  will  certainly 
be  of  as  great  value  to  him  in  his  trade,  should  he  select  a  trade, 
as  is  the  academic  work  to  one  who  later  enters  one  of  the  pro- 
fessions. 

Manual  training  is  also  a  means  of  relaxation  from  the  work 
which  requires  greater  mental  effort. 


•*M.  V.  O'Shea,  "Dynamic  Factors  in  Education,"  p.  79. 


72       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

There  seem  to  be  as  good  reasons  for  stating  that  it  helps 
develop  some  of  the  formal  powers,  such  as  attention,  persever- 
ance, and  industry,  as  there  are  for  stating  that  certain  of  the 
academic  subjects  develop  these  powers. 

Manual  training  leads  the  child's  impulses  in  the  proper  direc- 
tion, develops  certain  of  the  sense  centers,  and  forms  habits  of 
motor  control  which  are  of  permanent  value. 

Perhaps  one  of  the  greatest  results  of  the  introduction  of  manual 
training  is  the  fact  that  it  was  the  entering  wedge  by  means  of 
which  the  vocational,  industrial,  and  continuation  schools  have 
been  and  will  continue  to  be  introduced. 

Finally,  I  believe  the  results  are  of  sufficient  importance  to 
warrant  the  maintenance  of  manual  training  in  the  public  school 
system  throughout  its  entire  course  but  that  they  are  not  of  as 
far  reaching  effect  as  the  prediction  of  those  who  were  largely 
responsible  for  the  introduction  of  manual  training  would  lead 
us  to  expect. 


CHAPTER  IV 

Present  Day  Tendencies 

During  the  last  few  years  there  has  been  an  unsettled  condition 
in  educational  circles.  Criticism  against  the  various  school 
systems  has  been  plentiful  and  bitter.  No  doubt  some  of  it  is 
deserved,  but  much  of  it  is  exaggerated.  It  was  thought  by 
many  that  the  introduction  of  manual  training  and  domestic 
science  would  prove  to  be  the  solution  of  many  educational 
problems,  but  such  hopes  have  not  been  fully  realized.  "The 
wide  indiflference  to  manual  training  as  a  school  subject  may  be 
due  to  the  narrow  view  which  has  prevailed  among  its  chief 
advocates.  It  has  been  urged  as  a  cultural  subject,  mainly 
useful  as  a  stimulus  to  other  forms  of  intellectual  effort — a  sort 
of  mustard  relish,  an  appetizer — to  be  conducted  without  refer- 
ence to  any  industrial  end.  It  has  been  severed  from  real  life 
as  completely  as  have  other  school  activities.  Thus  it  has  come 
about  that  the  overmastering  influences  of  school  traditions 
have  brought  into  subjection  both  the  drawing  and  the  manual 
work."" 

The  feeling  that  the  best  results  were  not  being  obtained  from 
present  day  educational  methods  has  led  to  various  experiments 
— the  introduction  of  which  was  made  possible  through  the 
acceptance  of  manual  training.  These  experiments  have  been 
prompted  by  the  experiences  of  foreign  countries,  by  the  prac- 
tices of  many  corporations  in  this  country,  and  by  the  needs  of 
the  community. 

For  several  years,  quite  a  number  of  corporations  in  the  United 
States  have  maintained  apprenticeship  schools  in  order  to  pre- 
pare boys  and  young  men  in  their  employ  to  become  skilled 
workmen.  The  public  schools  did  not  provide  for  them  and  the 
old  apprenticeship  system,  as  applied  to  present  day  methods, 

"Report  of  Mass.  I  ndustrial  Education  Commission,  p.  14. 


74       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

was  worse  than  useless.  Mr.  Magnus  W.  Alexander  of  the 
General  Electric  Company  of  Massachusetts,  states  that  "the 
leaders  of  the  modern  apprentice  idea  are  sensing  their  new  re- 
sponsibilities by  instituting  courses  which  aim  to  train  young 
men  for  industrial  efficiency,  as  well  as  social  usefulness.  In- 
dustrial efficiency  is  sought  by  a  systematic  and  thorough  train- 
ing in  the  practical  work  of  a  chosen  trade,  and  social  usefulness 
is  striven  for,  through  effective,  co-ordinate  instruction  in  the 
theoretical  elements  on  which  the  practical  work  is  based,  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  growing  young  man  may  perform  his 
work  with  increasing  understanding  and  intelligence  and  may 
receive  a  wider  outlook  and  imagination,  and  a  better  apprecia- 
tion of  his  obligations  as  well  as  his  rights  in  the  team-work 
of  life."" 

Furthermore,  a  certain  portion  of  the  corporations  seem  to  be 
looking  forward  to  the  time  when  the  public  schools  will  co- 
operate with  them  in  giving  the  young  people  who  desire  it  a 
practical  education,  which  shall  not  be  destitute  of  culture. 
Mr.  G.  M.  Basford,  assistant  to  the  President  of  the  American 
Locomotive  Company,  bears  witness  to  this  statement  when  he 
says:  "We  need  skilled  workmen  who  understand  their  work 
and  its  relations  to  the  work  of  others,  and  who  are  prepared 
in  citizenship  to  take  their  places  in  the  organization  of  human 
life.  To  supply  the  need  we  must  train  the  hands  and  the  minds 
of  our  recruits.  The  present  emergency  seems  to  compel  us  to 
take  the  school  to  the  boy  for  the  training  of  the  mind.  Our 
greatest  work  is  in  the  shop.  The  boy  is  in  the  shop  and  we  must 
move  the  school  to  him  for  we  cannot  move  him  to  the  school. 
We  cannot  wait  for  the  educators  to  adapt  themselves  to  our 
problems,  but  we  must  take  it  in  hand  ourselves — hence  the 
corporation  school.  Whether  or  not  the  corporation  school  is 
permanent  is  a  question  which  may  be  safely  left  to  the  future. 
At  present  it  meets  an  urgent  need  and  will  meet  it  until  co-op- 
eration with  the  public  schools  may  be  effected."** 


*^  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  Bulletin, 
No.  13,  p.  55. 
*•  Ibid.,  p.  89. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       75 

Organized  labor  has  placed  itself  on  record  as  being  in  favor  of 
some  form  of  industrial  training  for  those  who  desire  it.  It  is 
not  prepared  to  accept  the  plan  of  co-operation  between  corpor- 
ations and  public  schools,  however,  because  of  the  fear  that  the 
corporations  would  dictate  the  policy  of  the  public  schools  and 
exploit  the  young  people  working  in  the  shops.  But  if  the  ex- 
periments which  are  now  being  performed  are  successful  and 
prove  to  be  beneficial  to  the  young  people,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
the  labor  unions  will  be  broad  minded  enough  to  aid  the  move- 
ment. The  belief,  if  ever  there  were  such  a  belief,  that  manual 
training  would  be  instrumental  in  increasing  the  number  of 
skilled  laborers  appreciably,  has  been  dispelled.  This  has  been 
felt  particularly  by  the  trade  unions.  "The  trade  unions  have 
been  waiting  in  vain  for  twenty-five  years  for  the  manual  train- 
ing schools  to  furnish  recruits  to  the  depleted  ranks  of  skilled 
labor.  It  is  time  now  to  take  steps  to  bring  back  the  standard 
of  efficiency.  We  want  a  system  which  will  develop  the  labor 
power  of  our  people  so  that  every  worker  may  become  interested 
in  his  work  and  approach  the  limits  of  human  efficiency.  *  *  *  ♦ 
A  healthy  community  is  impossible  without  the  union  of  the 
schoolhouse,  the  home,  and  the  workshop.  Modern  life  has  not 
yet  accommodated  itself  to  the  great  revolution  of  our  industrial 
system.  Nothing  but  a  thorough  industrial  education  and  un- 
derstanding of  the  economic  interests  of  society  can  lead  to  the 
necessary  union  between  labor  and  capital  and  give  peace  and 
prosperity  to  the  present  disturbed  and  suffering  industrial 
world."" 

It  is  quite  probable  that  the  attitude  of  organized  labor  will 
have  some  bearing  on  the  future  policy  of  the  public  school 
system.  There  seems  to  be  a  feeling  in  labor  circles  that  the 
industrial  training  should  be  acquired  at  public  expense.  The 
proposition  is  good  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  is  feasible.  The 
expense  that  would  be  involved  would  be  enormous.  It  would 
be  impossible  for  any  community  to  maintain  the  machinery 


"  Charles  H.  Winslow,  Representative  of  American  Federation  of  Labor, 
in  "National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  Bulletin 
No.  13,"  pp.  171-172. 


76       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

and  improvements  that  the  various  manufacturers  in  the  com- 
munity would  be  compelled  to  have.  The  co-operation  plan^ 
under  proper  supervision  and  control,  would  undoubtedly  fulfill 
the  conditions  with  much  less  expense  and  probably  with  better 
results. 

Some  time  ago,  Dr.  Georg  Kerschensteiner,  Superintendent 
of  Schools,  Munich,  Bavaria,  gave  several  lectures  in  this  country 
in  which  he  described  the  operation  of  the  continuation  schools 
in  Munich  and  other  parts  of  Germany.  His  lectures  created 
a  widespread  interest  and  met  with  much  favorable  comment. 
The  continuation  schools  have  been  very  successful  in  Munich. 
Dr.  Kerschensteiner  makes  the  statement  that  there  are  about 
20,000  pupils  under  i8  years  of  age  in  these  continuation  schools 
and  that  93%  of  all  the  boys  and  girls  between  6  and  18  in  Munich 
attend  the  public  schools  of  the  town.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
this  percentage  can  be  equalled  by  any  community  in  the  United 
States.  It  has  been  our  complaint  for  years  that  the  present 
system  of  education  does  not  keep  the  boys  and  girls  in  school. 
The  Munich  plan  would  seem  to  suggest  a  remedy  for  our  defect, 
provided,  of  course,  it  would  meet  our  conditions  satisfactorily. 
This  can  be  proved  only  by  experiment,  and  the  experiments 
could  not  be  successful  without  the  hearty  co-operation  of  manu- 
facturers. In  Germany,  the  employer  is  required  to  make  a 
sacrifice  by  giving  his  apprentices  the  requisite  time  for  school 
during  the  hours  of  work.  According  to  paragraph  120  in  the 
trade  regulation  law  of  the  German  Empire,  issued  in  1897, 
"every  employer  is  put  under  obligation  to  dismiss  his  appren- 
tices from  work  at  the  hours  appointed  by  the  town  for  school 
purposes,  under  penalty  of  a  fine."^° 

Certain  of  the  fundamental  principles  underlying  the  proper 
organization  of  continuation  schools,  as  outlined  by  Dr.  Kerschen- 
steiner, may  be  briefly  stated.  "The  first  fundamental  principle 
of  a  rightly  organized  continuation  school  is  that  it  must  extend 
to  the  eighteenth  year  of  every  boy  or  girl  who  is  not  being  edu- 
cated in  a  higher  school.     It  is  of  no  advantage  to  a  constitu- 


Dr.  Georg  Kerschensteiner,  "Vocational  Training,"  p.  12. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       77 

tional  state  to  make  its  opportunities  of  culture  accessible  only 
to  a  small  percentage." 

"  In  Germany  everybody  is  now  convinced  that  the  voluntary 
continuation  schools  no  longer  suffice  for  the  educational  needs 
of  modern  states.  As  long  as  the  continuation  school  remains 
optional,  thousands  of  employers  will  prevent  their  youthful 
workmen  from  making  use  of  its  opportunities,  except  at  the  end 
of  their  days'  work,  when  the  mind  and  body  are  fatigued." 

"  In  the  second  place  the  continuation  schools  must  engage  the 
interest  of  the  pupil.  This  can  only  be  done  by  interweaving  its 
teaching  with  the  trade  of  the  pupil. 

"The  school  must  possess  workshops  and  laboratories  for 
practical  work,  as  the  center  of  its  entire  organization.  There  it 
can  ennoble  and  intensify  the  work  of  boys  and  girls,  and  put 
processes  that  too  frequently  approach  them  only  in  a  purely 
mechanical  aspect  on  the  basis  of  practical  and  scientific  reflec- 
tion." 

"The  fourth  essential  of  the  continuation  school  is  the  attitude 
of  regarding  technical  education  largely  as  a  means  for  mental 
and  moral  training. 

"  In  the  next  place  the  subjects  taught  must  be  properly  corre- 
lated. The  relation  between  the  theoretical  and  the  practical 
must  be  made  clear. 

"  Finally,  the  aim  and  end  of  all  this  training  cannot  be  merely 
industrial  education.  Its  aim  and  end  is  the  education  of  the 
man,  whom  it  will  not  permit  to  be  identified  with  and  lost  in 
the  workman,  and  the  modern  state  can  never  hope  to  become 
a  state  of  culture  and  justice  till  it  has  succeeded,  by  the  right 
manner  of  instruction,  in  restoring  to  work,  robbed  of  its  divinity 
by  the  advance  of  industry,  its  educational  powers."" 

It  is  because  of  these  factors,  then — the  maintenance  of  ap- 
prenticeship schools  by  corporations,  the  demands  of  organized 
labor,  the  fact  that  manual  training  has  not  produced  skilled 

"  Dr.  Georg  Kerschensteiner,  "Vocational  Training,"  p.  17. 

"  im.,  p.  18. 

"/6id.,p.  19. 
"  Ibid.,  p.  16. 


78       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

workers  in  any  appreciable  numbers,  the  influence  of  foreign 
experience,  and  the  needs  of  the  community,  that  experiments 
are  now  being  tried  by  the  pubhc  school  system  in  a  number  of 
communities. 

Several  cities  in  the  United  States  have  put  into  effect  the 
half-time  scheme  of  education.  Among  those  cities  which  have 
operated  the  system  successfully  may  be  mentioned  Fitchburg, 
Mass.,  Cincinnati,  O.,  Columbus,  O.,  and  Beverly,  Mass.  The 
general  plan  of  operation  is  about  the  same  in  all  of  the  above 
named  cities,  but  it  differs  in  some  of  the  details.  All  seem  to 
unite  in  giving  credit  to  Professor  Herman  Schneider  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Cincinnati  for  first  working  out  the  plan  in  the  United 
States. 

According  to  the  Fitchburg  plan  of  Co-operative  Education, 
"the  course  outlined  is  of  four  years'  duration,  the  same  as  the 
regular  high  school  course.  The  first  year  is  spent  wholly  in 
school  and  the  next  three  alternate  weekly  between  shop  and 
school. 

"The  manufacturers  take  the  boys  in  pairs  so  that  by  alter- 
nating they  have  one  of  the  pair  always  at  work,  and  likewise 
the  school  is  provided  with  one  of  the  pair. 

"Each  Saturday  morning  the  boy  who  has  been  at  school 
that  week  goes  to  the  shop  in  order  to  get  hold  of  the  job  his 
mate  is  working  on  and  be  ready  to  take  it  up  Monday  morning 
when  the  shop  boy  goes  into  school  for  a  week. 

"Shop  work  consists  of  instruction  in  all  the  operations  neces- 
sary to  the  particular  trade. 

"Boys  receive  pay  for  the  weeks  they  are  at  work  at  these 
rates;  for  the  first  year,  lo  cents  an  hour;  the  second  year,  ii 
cents  an  hour;  and  the  third  year,  1 2  f^  cents  an  hour.  *  *  *  *  These 
rates  are  higher  than  the  former  apprentices  have  been  receiving, 
the  manufacturers  having  of  their  own  accord  raised  the  prices.^' 

"  Every  candidate  is  given  a  trial  period  of  two  months,  begin- 
ning immediately  at  the  close  of  school  in  June,  and  if  he  likes 
the  work  and  shows  aptitude  for  the  trade  he  takes  the  course, 


^*  Report  of  W.  B.  Hunter,  Fitchburg,  Mass.,  National   Society  for  the 
Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  Bulletin  No.   13,  pp.  96-97. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       79 

otherwise  he  drops  out,  and,  if  he  chooses,  takes  up  some  other 
course  i,n  the  high  school.  Thus  we  give  the  boy  an  opportunity 
to  find  himself,  something  that  has  hitherto  been  lacking  in 
our  schools." 

The  course  of  study  at  Fitchburg  differs  materially  from  the 
regular  high  school  course  usually  offered.  It  may  be  summar- 
ized as  follows:^* 

Subjecta  ist  Yr.      and  Yr.      3rd  Yr.      4th  Yr. 

English  and  Current  Events 5 

English 5  5  5 

Arith.,  Tables  and  Simple  Shop  Problems.        5 

Algebra 5 

Shop  Math.,  Algebra  and  Geometry 5 

Shop  Mathematics 5  4 

Freehand  and  Mech.  Drawing 8  6  6  5 

(First  year,  bench  work) 

Physics 444 

Civics 2 

Mechanism  of  Machines 5  5  4 

Chemistry 4  6 

First  Aid  to  the  Injured 1 

Commercial     Geography     and     Business 

Methods 3 

The  absence  of  language  is  quite  noticeable.  The  time  usually 
devoted  to  French,  German,  or  Latin  is  taken  up  with  Mechanism 
of  Machines  and  Freehand  and  Mechanical  Drawing,  yet  the 
number  and  scope  of  subjects  offered  would  certainly  give  the 
pupil  a  broad  enough  outlook  upon  life  so  that  he  would  not 
develop  into  a  mere  machine,  with  no  interests  other  than  those 
centered  in  his  actual  labor.  And  if,  after  a  boy  had  taken  and 
completed  this  course,  he  should  desire  to  go  to  a  technical  college, 
he  could  readily  do  so  with  but  a  little  additional  preparation. 

"The  Co-operative  Course  then,  by  the  verdict  of  the  students, 
manufacturers,  school  authorities,  and  community  has  proved 
an  unqualified  success,  and  by  extending  its  scope,  there  is  no 
question  in  my  mind  but  that  the  plan  is  the  correct  one  to  pro- 


^*  National  Society  for  the  Promotion   of    Industrial  Education,  Bulletin 
No.  13,  p.  99. 


80       Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

duce  just  the  kind  of  workmen  that  the  country  demands,  and 
give  to  the  workmen  the  ladder  to  climb  to  the  highest  level 
that  his  native  talents  and  ability  will  allow."" 

According  to  the  Fitchburg  plan,  a  boy  is  given  a  two  months* 
trial  and  if,  at  the  end  of  that  period,  he  desires  to  follow  that 
particular  trade,  the  parents  of  the  boy  and  the  manufacturer 
enter  into  a  mutual  agreement  whereby  the  boy  is  to  continue 
at  his  trade  for  three  years  and  in  turn  is  to  be  taught  the  various 
branches  of  the  trade  designated.  This  phase  of  the  plan  has 
been  severely  attacked  by  the  labor  organizations.  They  con- 
tend that  the  boy  is  really  indentured  to  the  manufacturer  in 
such  cases  and  that  he  is  exploited  for  the  profit  of  the  manufac- 
turer. Whether  this  is  actually  the  case  or  not  is  a  question, 
but  it  at  least  leaves  room  for  suspicion.  The  Beverly  Industrial 
School  has  endeavored  to  overcome  this  difficulty  by  having 
the  trustees  of  the  school  retain  full  control  of  the  pupils  while 
in  the  factory  and  the  same  person  to  instruct  a  particular  division 
in  both  factory  and  school.  "  By  this  means  the  work  is  conduct- 
ed in  a  way  to  contribute  most  effectually  to  the  boy's  progress 
in  his  trade  and  not  to  suit  the  exigencies  of  the  factory,  and  the 
instruction  is  imparted  by  a  trained  teacher  and  not  left  to  the 
uncertain  pedagogical  ability  of  the  ordinary  foreman.  Most  im- 
portant of  all,  it  safeguards  the  pupils  from  exploitation  and  the 
manufacturers  from  unjust  suspicion."^* 

The  wide-spread  interest  in  courses,  other  than  the  traditional 
cultural  courses,  has  been  instrumental  in  having  legislation  en- 
acted in  a  number  of  states.  Messrs.  Edward  C.  Elliot  and 
C.  A.  Prosser  have  presented  the  legislation,  relative  to  industrial 
education  in  the  public  elementary  and  secondary  schools,  in 
Bulletin  No.  12,  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Industrial  Education,  The  statistics  given  cover  only  "prac- 
tical training"  as  contrasted  with  the  so-called  "cultural  training" 
provided  by  legislation  for  institutions  of  secondary  grade,  sup- 


^^  W.  B.  Hunter,  Director  Industrial  Department,  Fitchburg  High  School, 
in  National  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  Bulletin 
No.  13,  p.  108, 

^'  Adelbert  L.  Safford,  Supt.  of  Schools,  Chelsea,  Mass.,  in  National  Society 
for  the  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  Bulletin  No.  13,  p.  m. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       81 

ported  and  controlled  by  the  public,  wherein  tuition  is  free  and 
open  to  all  able  to  meet  the  entrance  requirements.  Schools 
of  the  secondary  grade  only  are  considered.  All  private  schools, 
schools  for  special  classes,  institutions  for  the  supplementary 
education  of  those  above  high  school  age,  and  special  departments 
in  high  schools  or  special  schools  offering  vocational  training  along 
other  than  industrial  or  trade  lines  are  eliminated. 

The  term  "practical  activities"  as  used  in  the  table  given  below 
is  intended  to  include  or  cover  any  and  all  of  the  following 
types  of  training:  manual  training,  manual  arts,  mechanical 
arts,  technical  training,  household  economy,  agricultural,  and 
industrial  and  trade  training. 

THE  EXTENT  OF  STATE  LEGISLATION  FOR  PRACTICAL 
TRAINING 

Legislation  %  State  aid  % 

1.  Number  of  states  not  legislating  with  re- 

spect to  some  type  or  types  of  prac- 
tical activities 19  40 

2.  Number  of  states  legislating  with  respect 

to  practical  activities 29  60 

3.  Number  of  states  providing  state  aid  for 

some  type  or  types  of  practical  activities.  16  33 

1.  Number  of  states  providing  for  technical 

high  schools 10  20  i  2 

2.  Number  of  states  providing  for  manual 

training 18  37  9  ^9 

3.  Number  providing  for  training  in  domestic 

economy 1 1  23  II  23 

4.  Number  providing  for  agricultural  training      19  39  13  27 

5.  Number  providing  for  industrial  and  trade 

training 1 1  23  8  17 

6.  Number  providing  for  all  practical  activities     3  624 

Almost  all  of  this  legislation  has  been  enacted  during  the  past 
twelve  years.  Of  the  twenty-nine  states  legislating  with  respect 
to  practical  activities  of  any  type,  twenty-five  have  enacted  their 
present  provisions  since  1900.  Of  the  sixteen  states  granting 
state  aid  for  practical  activities  of  some  type,  fourteen  have  so 
provided  since  1903." 

"  National  Society  for  Promotion  of  Industrial  Education,  Bulletin  No. 
12,  Nov.,  1910,  pp.  23-26. 


82       Development  of  Maniial  Training  in  the  United  States 

During  191 1,  Colorado  was  the  only  new  state  to  enact  legis- 
lation for  practical  activities.  The  legislation  provided  for  the 
establishment  of  a  school  of  agriculture  and  mechanic  arts  and 
appropriated  $75,000  therefor,  and  also  provided  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  state  trade  school.  Alabama,  Indiana,  Maine, 
Massachusetts,  Michigan,  Minnesota,  Pennsylvania,  and  Wis- 
consin have  enacted  legislation  relative  to  industrial  education, 
in  addition  to  that  which  had  previously  been  enacted.*" 

The  keen  interest  manifested  and  the  recent  legislation  enacted 
have  created  a  widespread  discussion  on  the  possibilities  of  the 
practical  activities  or  vocational  training.  One  outcome  of  this 
ever  growing  movement  has  been  the  introduction  of  a  bill  by 
United  States  Senator  Carrol  S.  Page  in  the  Senate;  this  bill 
provides : 

1.  "For  the  maintenance  of  instruction  in  the  trades  and 
industries,  home  economics,  and  agriculture  in  public  schools  of 
secondary  grade." 

2.  "  For  the  maintenance  of  instruction  in  agriculture  and  home 
economics  in  State  district  agricultural  schools  of  secondary  grade, 
as  provided  in  section  two  of  this  act." 

3.  "For  the  maintenance  of  branch  field  test  and  breeding 
stations — to  be  located  at  the  agricultural  high  schools  provided 
for  in  this  act." 

4.  "For  the  maintenance  in  each  State  of  a  college  of  agricul- 
ture and  the  mechanic  arts — of  an  extension  department  de- 
voted to  giving  instruction  and  demonstration  in  agriculture,  the 
trades  and  industries,  home  economics,  and  rural  affairs,  to  persons 
not  resident  at  these  colleges." 

5.  "For  the  preparation  of  persons  to  serve  as  teachers  of  the 
vocations  of  agriculture,  trades  and  industries,  and  home  econo- 
mics— in  departments  of  divisions  of  education  in  the  State  col- 
leges of  agriculture  and  the  mechanic  arts  of  the  respective 
States  and  Territories  established  under  the  act  of  Congress 
approved  July  second,   1862." 

The  bill  further  provides  for  the  establishment  of  a  secondary 
agricultural  school  and  branch  station  in  each  district,  the  total 


Report  of  United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  191 1,  p.  149. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       83 

number  of  such  districts  in  a  given  state  or  territory  to  be  not 
less  than  one  for  each  fifteen  counties  nor  more  than  one  for 
each  five  counties  and  fraction  of  five  counties. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  bill  to  maintain  the  secondary- 
schools  but  to  co-operate  with  the  states  in  encouraging  instruc- 
tion in  and  preparing  teachers  for  those  activities  mentioned  in 
the  above  items.     The  bill  provides  funds  for  this  purpose. 

Recently  Senator  Page  stated  that  the  bill  has  been  amended 
and  perfected  so  as  to  secure  for  it  the  enthusiastic  endorsement 
of  over  90%  of  the  leading  educators  of  the  country.  To  these 
endorsements  may  be  added  the  hearty  support  of  many  associa- 
tions and  organizations  which  have  given  the  bill  serious  consid- 
eration. If  the  bill  becomes  a  law,  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  similar 
benefits  may  obtain  to  secondary  education  as  obtained  to  higher 
education  through  the  establishment  of  the  state  colleges  of 
agriculture  and  mechanic  arts  by  the  land  grant  act  of  1862. 

Conclusion 

As  was  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter,  I  believe  that  the 
benefits  derived  from  the  proper  presentation  of  manual  training 
to  be  of  sufficient  value  to  warrant  its  maintenance  in  those 
schools  where  it  is  now  taught,  and  to  warrant  its  further  intro- 
duction. But  statistics  seem  to  indicate  that  it  has  not  succeeded 
in  keeping  a  greater  percentage  of  boys  in  school.  As  a  result 
of  this  fact  and  other  conditions  that  have  been  suggested  in  this 
chapter,  various  educational  experiments  are  now  being  tried 
and  advocated.  Whether  or  not  we  are  working  in  the  proper 
direction  depends  largely  upon  what  we  conceive  to  be  the  pur- 
pose and  aim  of  education. 

If  the  chief  aim  of  education  be  a  cultural  one,  then,  perhaps, 
the  old  classical  courses  will  best  fit  the  pupils  for  this  end ;  but 
if  the  chief  aim  be  broader  than  this,  if  it  is  to  be  "an  undertaking 
by  the  social  body  itself  to  fit  an  individual  to  carry  on  smoothly, 
in  conjunction  with  others,  the  work  necessary  for  the  highest 
and  fullest  life  of  all,  the  further  idea  at  once  comes,  that  since 
society  is  progressive,  since  social  demands  change  from  time 
to  time,  since  each  generation  and  age  has  its  own  spirit  and  ideas 


84      Development  of  Mantial  Training  in  the  United  States 

to  realize,  education  cannot  be  a  static,  changeless  scheme  or 
system."" 

Prof.  Paul  H.  Hanus  states  that  the  special  aims  of  elementary 
or  early  education  are: 

1.  "To  nourish  the  mind  of  the  child  through  a  course  of 
study  which  should  comprise  an  orderly  presentation  of  the 
whole  field  of  knowledge  in  its  elements,  and  thus  acquaint 
the  pupil  with  the  world  in  which  he  lives  and  the  civilization 
into  which  he  is  born,  and  of  his  own  relations  to  them,  including 
his  duties  and  his  privileges ;  and  thus  to  provide  the  opportunity 
for  the  exercise  of  all  the  child's  powers,  mental  and  moral, 
aesthetic,  manual  or  constructive,  through  good  instruction  and 
wise  discipline." 

2.  "To  guard  and  promote  his  normal  physical  development."'* 
The  special  aims  of  secondary  education  are: 

1 .  To  discover  and  systematically  to  develop  a  human  being's 
interests  and  capacities;  intellectual,  moral,  aesthetic,  manual, 
or  constructive. 

2.  With  constant  regard  to  the  progress  of  this  discovery  to 
so  direct  his  development,  as  gradually  to  emancipate  him  from 
external  restraint  and  guidance,  in  order  to  render  him,  as  far 
as  possible,  self-directing,  i.  e.,  physically,  mentally,  morally, 
stable,  alert,  vigorous,  and  active. 

3.  To  enable  a  youth  to  realize  that  he  owes  a  duty  to  society 
as  well  as  to  himself;  and  hence,  that  the  prizes  of  life — namely, 
wealth,  leisure,  honor,  in  order  to  possess  lasting  worth  in  his 
own  estimation  and  in  the  estimation  of  his  fellow  men,  must 
be  earned;  or,  when  inherited,  as  they  sometimes  are,  that  they 
must  be  deserved ;  that,  in  short,  man's  highest  and  most  perma- 
nent ideal  is  service.*' 

If  these  be  the  true  aims  of  education,  then  appropriate  courses 
should  be  established  to  fulfill  them  whenever  conditions  warrant 
it.  If  we  fail  to  provide  such  courses  for  the  pupils  we  may  pre- 
vent them  from  developing  the  powers  which  they  possess  and 

*^  John  M.  Gillette,  "Vocational  Education,"  p.  73. 

*^  Paul  H.  Hanus,  "Educational  Aims  and  Educational  Values,"  p.  64. 

»/W(f.,  p.  65. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States      85 

divert  them  into  other  paths  which  may  prove  to  be  of  more 
interest  but  of  less  ultimate  value. 

The  mere  fact  that,  in  the  past,  we  made  the  mistake  iri,  be- 
lieving that  these  courses  which  aimed  chiefly  at  culture  were 
the  most  efficient  for  all  concerned  does  not  warrant  us  in  going 
to  the  other  extreme.  The  needs  of  the  community,  the  forms  of 
industry,  and  the  attitude  of  the  parents,  should  all  be  carefully 
investigated  before  decisive  steps  are  taken  toward  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  new  course  of  study  into  a  public  school  system.  The 
experience  of  those  who  have  already  adopted  that  course 
should  also  be  carefully  considered. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  whether  the  trade  school,  the  continua- 
tion school,  the  half  time  school,  and  the  industrial  school  should 
be  controlled  by  the  public  school  system  or  not.  But  in  either 
case,  extreme  care  must  be  exercised  to  prevent  a  growth  of  class 
distinction.  It  was  this  factor  more  than  any  other  that  retarded 
the  growth  of  the  public  school  system  at  its  inception.  The 
public  school  was  the  "charity  school"  and  a  sharp  and  fast 
line  was  drawn  between  the  children  who  had  to  attend  the 
public  schools  and  those  who  could  afford  to  go  to  pay  schools. 

In  this  case,  the  line  would  be  drawn  between  those  who  attend 
the  classical  schools  and  those  who  attend  the  schools  where 
manual  work  is  required.  It  has  taken  a  long  time  to  break  down 
the  prejudice  against  manual  training  schools,  and  even  now  it 
has  not  wholly  disappeared.  And  it  seems  quite  probable  that 
this  feeling  might  be  greatly  intensified  in  the  newer  type  of 
school. 

It  is  not  fair  to  assume  that  if  the  type  of  schools  mentioned 
work  well  in  Germany  or  some  other  European  country  it  will 
work  well  in  the  United  States.  In  many  of  the  foreign  countries 
the  class  lines  are  sharply  drawn  and  are  recognized  and  accepted. 
The  son  usually  follows  the  same  occupation  as  his  father.  He 
does  not  have  to  choose  his  trade;  he  simply  enters  the  school 
that  will  fit  him  for  his  father's  occupation,  when  the  time  for 
a  choice  comes.  Such  a  condition  does  not  exist  in  this  country 
to  any  very  great  extent.  Foreign  experience  may  indicate  to 
us  the  proper  lines  along  which  to  experiment  but  we  must  base 
our  conclusions  on  our  own  experiences  and  the  results  obtained. 


86      Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

Ever  since  our  War  for  Independence,  we  have  prided  ourselves 
on  the  fact  that  we  have  been  a  democratic  nation.  The  Colon- 
ists felt  that  taxation  without  representation  was  a  wrong  prin- 
ciple; that  it  was  the  inalienable  right  of  the  taxed  to  have  a 
direct  voice  in  the  government.  This  latter  principle  was  one 
of  the  dominant  factors  in  precipitating  the  war  and  has  been 
our  most  cherished  privilege  since  that  time. 

In  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  one  of  the  truths  enun- 
ciated as  self-evident  was  "that  all  men  are  created  equal." 
But  the  spirit  of  democracy  goes  further  than  that.  All  men 
should  be  given  an  equal  opportunity  to  prepare  themselves  for 
their  respective  places  in  society.  The  only  way  in  which  we 
can  obtain  such  a  condition  is  to  adjust  the  public  school  system 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  community  and  the  individual. 

We  have  been  wrapped  up  in  the  close  net  of  tradition  ever 
since  the  first  attempt  at  education  was  made  in  this  country. 
There  is  nothing  more  difficult  than  to  rend  asunder  the  bonds 
with  which  custom  surrounds  a  national  institution.  There  is 
always  a  vast  number  who  will  continually  put  forth  the  argu- 
ment that  what  was  good  enough  for  them  will  be  good  enough 
for  posterity. 

If  we  could  but  eliminate  our  educational  traditions  and  face 
the  problem  of  how  best  to  educate  the  youth  of  this  country  so 
as  to  best  fit  them  to  make  an  honest  livelihood  and  take  their 
proper  places  in  society,  we  would  be  better  able  to  understand 
the  present  needs  of  our  educational  system. 

"A  modern  democracy  of  the  industrial  type  demands  both 
an  extension  of  educational  privileges,  and  a  departure  from  the 
traditional  methods  of  instruction  in  order  to  fulfill  the  condi- 
tions necessary  to  prolonging  its  existence.  The  democratic 
view  of  education  is  just  beginning  to  rise  above  the  pedagogical 
horizon.  Free  compulsory  education  is  not  democratic,  if  it 
is  of  the  kind  and  character  which  is  valuable  chiefly  to  the  pro- 
fessional man,  or  to  the  man  of  leisure;  nor  is  it  democratic  if  it 
merely  aims  to  increase  the  efficiency  and  speed  of  the  employees 
in  our  great  industrial  establishments.^ 


F.  T.  Carlton,  "Educational  and  Industrial  Evolution,"  Int.  p.  8. 


Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States       87 

"The  former  overlooks  completely  the  dynamic  view  of  the 
world;  its  eyes  are  turned  backward  toward  the  past.  It  mag- 
nifies the  desirability  of  disciplinary  and  purely  cultural  studies; 
and  on  the  other  hand  it  minimizes  the  value  of,  and  often  sneers 
at,  the  practical  and  concrete.  *  *  *  *  On  the  contrary,  the 
partisans  of  the  practical  studies  are  prone  to  forget  the  lessons 
of  the  past,  and  to  see  only  the  immediate  monetary  value 
of  the  training  which  they  advocate."** 


^F.  J.  Carlton,  "Educational  and  Industrial  Evolution,"  p.  74. 


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90      Development  of  Manual  Training  in  the  United  States 

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